Ohio's Learning Standards for Science

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

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Chemistry

INTRODUCTION AND SYLLABUS

COURSE DESCRIPTION

Chemistry is a high school level course, which satisfies the Ohio Core

science graduation requirements of Ohio Revised Code Section 3313.603.

This section of Ohio law requires three units of science. Each course should

include inquiry-based laboratory experience that engages students in asking

valid scientific questions and gathering and analyzing information.

This course introduces students to key concepts and theories that provide a

foundation for further study in other sciences as well as advanced science

disciplines. Chemistry comprises a systematic study of the predictive

physical interactions of matter and subsequent events that occur in the

natural world. The study of matter through the exploration of classification, its

structure and its interactions is how this course is organized.

Investigations are used to understand and explain the behavior of matter in a

variety of inquiry and design scenarios that incorporate scientific reasoning,

analysis, communication skills and real-world applications. An understanding

of leading theories and how they have informed current knowledge prepares

students with higher order cognitive capabilities of evaluation, prediction and

application.

COURSE CONTENT

The following information may be taught in any order; there is no ODE-

recommended sequence.

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.1: Atomic structure

• Evolution of atomic models/theory

• Electrons

• Electron configurations

C.PM.2: Periodic Table

• Properties

• Trends

C.PM.3: Chemical bonding

• Ionic

• Polar/covalent

C.PM.4: Representing compounds

• Formula writing

• Nomenclature

• Models and shapes (Lewis structures, ball and stick, molecular

geometries)

C.PM.5: Quantifying matter

C.PM.6: Intermolecular forces of attraction

• Types and strengths

• Implications for properties of substances

 Melting and boiling point

 Solubility

 Vapor pressure

C.IM: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.1: Chemical reactions

• Types of reactions

• Kinetics

• Energy

• Equilibrium

• Acids/bases

C.IM.2: Gas laws

• Pressure, volume and temperature

• Ideal gas law

C.IM.3: Stoichiometry

• Molecular calculations

• Solutions

• Limiting reagents

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

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260

NATURE OF SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

Nature of Science

One goal of science education is to help students become scientifically literate citizens able to use science as a way of knowing about the natural and material

world. All students should have sufficient understanding of scientific knowledge and scientific processes to enable them to distinguish what is science from what

is not science and to make informed decisions about career choices, health maintenance, quality of life, community and other decisions that impact both

themselves and others.

Categories High School

Scientific Inquiry, Practice and

Applications

All students must use these

scientific processes with

appropriate laboratory safety techniques

construct their knowledge and

understanding in all science content areas.

x Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations.

x Design and conduct scientific investigations using a variety of methods and tools to collect empirical

evidence, observing appropriate safety techniques

x Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications.

x Formulate and revise explanations and models using logic and scientific evidence (critical thinking).

x Recognize and analyze explanations and models.

x Communicate and support scientific arguments.

Science is a Way of Knowing

Science assumes the universe is a vast

single system in which basic laws are

consistent. Natural laws operate today as

they did in t

he past and they will continue to

do so in the future. Science is both a body

of knowledge that represents a current

understanding of natural systems and the

processes used to refine, elaborate, revise

and extend this knowledge.

x Various science disciplines use diverse methods to obtain evidence and do not always use the same set of

procedures to obtain and analyze data (i.e., there is no one scientific method).

o Make observations and look for patterns.

o Determine relevant independent variables affecting observed patterns.

o Manipulate an independent variable to affect a dependent variable.

o Conduct an experiment with controlled variables based on a question or hypothesis.

o Analyze data graphically and mathematically.

x Science disciplines share common rules of evidence used to evaluate explanations about natural

phenomenon by using empirical standards, logical arguments and peer reviews.

o Empirical standards include objectivity, reproducibility, and honest and ethical reporting of findings.

o Logical arguments should be evaluated with open-mindedness, objectivity and skepticism.

x Science arguments are strengthened by multiple lines of evidence supporting a single explanation.

x The various scientific disciplines have practices, methods, and modes of thinking that are used in the process

of developing new science knowledge and critiquing existing knowledge.

Science is a Human Endeavor

Science has been, and continues to be,

advanced by individuals of various races,

genders, ethnicities, languages, abilities,

family backgrounds and incomes.

x Science depends on curiosity, imagination, creativity and persistence.

x Individuals from different social, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds work as scientists and engineers.

x Science and engineering are influenced by technological advances and society; technological advances and

society are influenced by science and engineering.

x Science and technology might raise ethical, social and cultural issues for which science, by itself, does not

provide answers and solutions.

Scientific Knowledge is Open to

Revision in Light of New Evidence

Science is not static. Science is constantly

changing as we acquire more knowledge.

x Science can advance through critical thinking about existing evidence.

x Science includes the process of comparing patterns of evidence with current theory.

x Some science knowledge pertains to probabilities or tendencies.

x Science should carefully consider and evaluate anomalies (persistent outliers) in data and evidence.

x Improvements in technology allow us to gather new scientific evidence.

*Adapted from Appendix H – Understanding the Scientific Enterprise: The Nature of Science in the Next Generation Science Standards

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261

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.1: Atomic structure

x Evolution of atomic models/theory

x Electrons

x Electron configurations

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.1: Atomic structure

Physical Science included properties and locations of protons, neutrons and electrons, atomic number, mass number, cations and anions, isotopes and the strong

nuclear force which holds the nucleus together. In this course, the historical development of the atomic model and the positions of electrons are explored in greater

detail.

Atomic models are constructed to explain experimental evidence and make predictions. The changes in the atomic model over time exemplify how scientific

knowledge changes as new evidence emerges and how technological advancements like electricity extend the boundaries of scientific knowledge. Thompson’s

study of electrical discharges in cathode-ray tubes led to the discovery of the electron and the development of the plum pudding model of the atom. Rutherford’s

H[SHULPHQWLQZKLFKKHERPEDUGHGJROGIRLOZLWKĮ-particles, led to the discovery that most of the atom consists of empty space with a relatively small, positively

charged nucleus. Bohr used data from atomic spectra to propose a planetary model of the atom in which electrons orbit the nucleus, like planets around the sun.

Later, Schrödinger used the idea that electrons travel in waves to develop a model in which electrons travel randomly in regions of space called orbitals (quantum

mechanical model).

Based on the quantum mechanical model, it is not possible to predict exactly where electrons are located but there is a region of space surrounding the nucleus in

which there is a high probability of finding an electron (electron cloud or orbital). Data from atomic spectra (emission and absorption) gives evidence that electrons

can only exist at certain discrete energy levels and not at energies between these levels.

Atoms are usually in the ground state where the electrons occupy orbitals with the lowest available energy. However, the atom can become excited when the

electrons absorb a photon with the precise amount of energy (indicated by the frequency of the photon) to move to an orbital with higher energy. Any photon

without this precise amount of energy will be ignored by the electron. The atom exists in the excited state for a very short amount of time. When an electron drops

back down to the lower energy level, it emits a photon that has energy equal to the energy difference between the levels. The amount of energy is indicated by the

frequency of the light that is given off and can be measured. Each element has a unique emission and absorption spectrum due to its unique electron configuration

and specific electron energy jumps that are possible for that element.

Being aware of the quantum mechanical model as the currently accepted model for the atom is important for science literacy as it explains and predicts subatomic

interactions, but details should be reserved for more advanced study.

Electron energy levels consist of sublevels (s, p, d and f), each with a characteristic number and shape of orbitals. Orbital diagrams and electron configuration can

be constructed to show the location of the electrons in an atom using established rules. Valence electrons are responsible for most of the chemical properties of

elements. In this course, electron configuration (extended and noble gas notation) and orbital diagrams can be shown for any element in the first three periods.

Although the quantum mechanical model of the atom explains the most experimental evidence, other models can still be helpful. Thinking of atoms as indivisible

spheres is useful in explaining many physical properties of substances, such as the state (solid, liquid or gas) of a substance at room temperature. Bohr’s

planetary model is useful to explain and predict periodic trends in the properties of elements.

Note: Quantum numbers and equations of de Broglie, Schrödinger and Plank are beyond the scope of this course.

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EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.1: Atomic structure

Evolution of atomic models/atomic structure

Compare the nature of protons,

neutrons and electrons among

different atomic models.

Compare the strengths and limitations

of particular atomic models.

Investigate the principles used to

develop atomic models (e.g. a black-

box problem).

Create a timeline that shows major

discoveries in atomic history.

Predict which isotope is most

abundant given an element’s atomic

mass and the mass numbers of its

isotopes.

Identify atomic models (e.g., Dalton’s,

Thomson’s, Rutherford’s, Bohr’s) and

the work used to produce each of

these models.

Interpret the classic historical

experiments that were used to identify

the components of an atom and

behavior of electrons.

Calculate atomic mass given the

abundance of various isotopes.

Determine the atomic number, mass

number, number of protons, neutrons

and electrons.

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263

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Electrons

Using knowledge and/or

understanding of various ions and

their electron location, construct a

plan or proposal for a community

firework show. Proposal must contain

a list of materials, including the

chemicals, safety procedures,

environmental impact and possible

cost.

Design a toy that is based on the idea

of excited electrons.

Design an investigation using group 2

elements that illustrates the reactivity

of the elements as you move down

the group. Interpret data to explain

this reasoning based on the electron

configurations of each element.

Compare the electron configuration of

various ions based on data from an

experiment (e.g., flame test, spectral

tubes). Explore the color of various

salts by looking at the

electromagnetic spectrum.

Identify the extended and noble gas

notation electron configurations for

elements in the first three periods.

Using the periodic table, determine

the electron configuration of an atom.

Construct an orbital diagram or

electron configuration to show the

probable arrangement of electrons in

an atom.

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264

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.2: Periodic table

x Properties

x Trends

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.2: Periodic table

In the Physical Science course, the concept that elements are placed in order of increasing atomic number in the periodic table such that elements with similar

properties are placed in the same column is introduced. How the periodic table is divided into groups, families, periods, metals, nonmetals and metalloids is also

included and will be revisited here. In this course, with more information about the electron configuration of elements, similarities in the configuration of the valence

electrons for a particular group can be observed. The electron configuration of an atom can be determined from the position on the periodic table. The repeating

pattern in the electron configuration for elements on the periodic table explains many of the trends in the properties observed. Atomic theory is used to describe

and explain trends in properties across periods or down columns including atomic radii, ionic radii, first ionization energies, electronegativities and whether the

element is a solid or gas at room temperature. Additional ionization energies, electron affinities and periodic properties of the transition elements, and the

lanthanide and actinide series are reserved for more advanced study.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.2: Periodic table

Properties

Develop a proposal for the

construction of an outdoor art

installation in various

environments/climates. Determine

which metal(s) would have the

optimal properties for your project.

Present and defend your proposal to

a panel of experts.

Predict the placement of an element

on the periodic table given only a list

of its properties.

Given a metalloid, judge whether the

metalloid is more likely to behave as a

metal or nonmetal. Defend your

choice.

Create a product that explains the

organization of the periodic table

(e.g., increasing atomic number,

groups, periods, metals, metalloid,

nonmetals) to middle school students.

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265

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Trends

Create a graphic to show the

relationships between the trends of

the periodic table and electron

configurations.

Describe ionization energy and relate

it to atomic structure.

Describe electronegativity and relate

it to atomic structure.

Describe periodic trends in ionic radii

and electron affinity and relate them

to atomic structure.

Describe atomic radius and relate to

atomic structure.

Describe how shielding effect

explains the trend in atomic size.

For two atoms, identify the one that is

larger, more electronegative, or more

easily ionized based on where they

are on the periodic table. Justify your

answer.

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266

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.3: Chemical bonding

x Ionic

x Polar/covalent

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.3: Chemical bonding

Content in the Physical Science course included recognizing that atoms with unpaired electrons tend to form ionic and covalent bonds with other atoms, forming

molecules, ionic lattices or network covalent structures. In this course, electron configuration, electronegativity values and energy considerations will be applied to

bonding and the properties of materials with different types of bonding.

Atoms of many elements are more stable when they are bonded to other atoms. In such cases, as atoms bond, energy is released to the surroundings, resulting in

a system with lower energy. An atom’s electron configuration, particularly the valence electrons, determines how an atom interacts with other atoms. Molecules,

ionic lattices and network covalent structures have different, yet predictable, properties that depend on the identity of the elements and the types of bonds formed.

Differences in electronegativity values can be used to predict where a bond fits on the continuum between ionic and covalent bonds. The polarity of a bond

depends on the electronegativity difference and the distance between the atoms (bond length). Polar covalent bonds are introduced as an intermediary between

ionic and pure covalent bonds. The concept of metallic bonding is also introduced to explain many of the properties of metals (e.g., conductivity). Since most

compounds contain multiple bonds, a substance may contain more than one type of bond. Carbon atoms can bond together and with other atoms, especially

hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, to form chains, rings and branching networks that are present in a variety of important compounds, including synthetic

polymers, fossil fuels and the large molecules essential to life. Detailed study of the structure of molecules responsible for life is reserved for more advanced

courses.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the

Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

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267

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.3: Chemical bonding

Ionic bonds

Design a theoretical pharmaceutical

with an appropriate shape to interact

with a provided enzyme or receptor

designed molecule would need to

contact the enzyme or receptor in

three different loci.

Design an investigation to evaluate

the claims of a commercial product

(e.g., ionic-tourmaline, a mineral that

is said to emit quick-drying ions; a

hair dryer; a shake weight dumbbell; a

type of strong-bond glue). Determine

function, intent and any potential bias

with the product. Present findings in

multiple formats.

Design and conduct an investigation

to distinguish between ionic, polar

covalent, nonpolar covalent and

metallic bonds based on material

properties (e.g., melting point,

solubility, conductivity).

Design an experiment to test the

effectiveness of a water softener

system’s ability to remove ions from

water.

Compare the stability of ions when

they are separated vs. when they are

in their lattice.

Construct models or diagrams (e.g.,

Lewis dot structures, ball and stick

models) of common compounds and

molecules (e.g., NaCl, SiO

, O

, H

) and distinguish between

ionically and covalently bonded

compounds.

Using electron configurations,

hypothesize how an atom becomes a

cation or anion and illustrate how and

why they would form ionic

compounds.

Define bond energy and recognize

that bond-breaking is an endothermic

process and bond-forming is an

exothermic process.

Represent the formation of a bond

using electron configurations of

individual atoms.

Explain the tendency of elements to

transfer or share electrons based on

their location on the periodic table.

Identify valence electrons as the

highest energy electrons in the atom

and use the octet rule to predict the

most stable ion formed.

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268

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Polar/covalent bonds

Propose a method to evaluate the

ability of plastics to be recycled based

on the understanding of the plastic’s

polarity.

Evaluate and critique the impact of a

synthetic polymer, fossil fuel or

biological macromolecule on society,

the environment or health.

Devise a procedure to evaluate

physical and chemical properties to

develop predictions and support

claims about compounds'

classification as ionic, polar or

covalent.

Evaluate the properties of DNA based

on the bonds (polar and nonpolar)

within its chemical structure and how

it relates to DNA sequencing and/or

forensic/medical applications.

Determine if bonds and molecules are

polar by determining the direction of

dipole moment of the individual

bonds.

Using electron dot diagrams,

generate models showing that

molecular compounds result from

atoms sharing electrons. Include

carbon bonds showing the formation

of chains, rings and branching

networks.

Distinguish between bond polarity and

molecular polarity. Construct models

illustrating how a nonpolar molecule

can be formed from polar bonds.

Compare the stability of atoms when

they are separated vs. when they are

bonded.

Using experimental evidence, explain

how the properties of macromolecules

depend on the properties of the

molecules used in their formation and

the length and structure of the

polymer chain.

Distinguish between ionic and

polar/nonpolar covalent bonds based

on their electronegativity values.

Write equations for covalent bond

formation between two atoms using

Lewis structures.

Explain the difference between a

single, double and triple bond in terms

of electrons shared.

Compare the bond energies and

lengths for single, double and triple

bonds conceptually (no numbers).

Explain how polymerization forms

long chains of macromolecules

(polymers) from small molecules

(monomers). Provide examples of

natural and synthetic polymers.

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269

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Metallic bonds

Critique the advantages and

disadvantages of different metals and

alloys for bridge construction.

Illustrate how freely moving electrons

in metallic bonds affect properties

such as conductivity, malleability and

ductility.

Explain how the structure of metal

atoms give them the ability to conduct

heat and electricity.

Explore the extent to which a variety

of solid materials conduct electricity

and rank the materials from good

conductors to poor conductors. Based

on the conductivity data, determine

patterns of location on the Periodic

Table for the good conductors vs. the

poor conductors.

Compare electrons in a metallic bond

and in a covalent bond.

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270

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.4: Representing compounds

x Formula writing

x Nomenclature

x Models and shapes (Lewis structures, ball and stick, molecular geometries)

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.4: Representing compounds

Using the periodic table, formulas of ionic compounds containing specific elements can be predicted. This can include ionic compounds made up of elements from

groups 1, 2, 17, hydrogen, oxygen and polyatomic ions (given the formula and charge of the polyatomic ion). Given the formula, a compound can be named using

conventional systems that include Greek prefixes and Roman numerals where appropriate. Given the name of an ionic or covalent substance, formulas can be

written.

Many different models can be used to represent compounds including chemical formulas, Lewis structures, and ball and stick models. These models can be used

to visualize atoms and molecules and to predict the properties of substances. Each type of representation provides unique information about the compound.

Different representations are better suited for particular substances. Lewis structures can be drawn to represent covalent compounds using a simple set of rules

and can be combined with valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory to predict the three-dimensional electron pair and molecular geometry of

compounds. Lewis structures and molecular geometries will only be constructed for the following combination of elements: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,

phosphorus, sulfur and the halogens. Organic nomenclature is reserved for more advanced courses.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the

Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

Back to Table of Contents

271

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.4: Representing compounds

Formula writing

Develop the formulas for chemical

compounds in household items based

on their names.

Construct a prototype of a game to

enhance the understanding of formula

writing and nomenclature. Allow other

students to evaluate and critique the

appropriateness of the game.

Given elements from the periodic

table and/or polyatomic ions, predict

the formula of a compound.

Write a formula from the name of an

acid.

Nomenclature

Given the formula of an ionic

compound or a binary covalent

compound, determine the

compound’s name.

Name an acid based on its chemical

formula.

Models and shapes (Lewis structures, ball and stick, molecular geometries)

Determine which type of model (e.g.,

chemical formula, Lewis structure,

ball-and-stick model) is the best

representation for a variety of

compounds.

Implementing VSEPR identify the

different shapes within a large

macromolecule (e.g., caffeine,

dopamine, serotonin).

Construct simple Lewis structures of

compounds made up of hydrogen,

carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,

phosphorus, sulfur and the halogens.

Predict the three-dimensional shapes

of simple Lewis structures using

valence shell electron pair repulsion

(VSEPR) theory.

Construct three-dimensional ball-and-

stick models to determine the shapes

of simple covalent compounds.

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272

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.5: Quantifying matter

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.5: Quantifying matter

In earlier grades, properties of materials were quantified with measurements that were always associated with some error. In this course, scientific protocols for

quantifying the properties of matter accurately and precisely are studied. Using the International System of Units (SI), significant digits or figures, scientific notation,

error analysis and dimensional analysis are vital to scientific communication.

There are three domains of magnitude in size and time: the macroscopic (human) domain, the cosmic domain and the submicroscopic (atomic and subatomic)

domain. Measurements in the cosmic domain and submicroscopic domains require complex instruments and/or procedures.

Matter can be quantified in a way that macroscopic properties such as mass can reflect the number of particles present. Elemental samples are a mixture of

several isotopes with different masses. The atomic mass of an element is calculated given the mass and relative abundance of each isotope of the element as it

exists in nature. Because the mass of an atom is very small, the mole is used to translate between the atomic and macroscopic levels. A mole is equal to the

number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of the isotope carbon-12. The mass of one mole of a substance is equal to its molar mass in grams. The molar mass for a

substance can be used in conjunction with Avogadro’s number and the density of a substance to convert between mass, moles, volume and number of particles of

a sample.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands

relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

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273

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.5: Quantifying matter

Devise a method to indirectly

determine the value of a

measurement that common laboratory

tools cannot provide (e.g., thickness

of aluminum foil, number of sand

particles, moles of chalk used to write

your name, drop from a pipet).

Design a method to determine the

empirical formula or percent

composition of an unknown

hydrate/compound.

Determine the percent by mass of

water content in popcorn. Correlate its

effect on the amount of popcorn

produced (or time it takes to start the

batch popping). Compare three

brands, isolate other variables (e.g.,

popping method, use of different

types of oil) and present findings in

multiple formats.

Using a Socratic seminar, research

and discuss the pros and cons of the

International System of Units (SI) vs.

the English measuring system.

Use calculations to compare the

ratios of the size of the atom to the

size of different objects (e.g., cell,

person, tree).

Compare moles and mass. Identify

situations where each is most

appropriate to use.

Design an investigation to show that

the volume of any liquid sample is

constant when divided by its mass.

Measure the volume of an irregular

solid using SI units. Provide your

answer using correct significant

figures and unit.

Distinguish accuracy from precision.

Carry out laboratory measurements

with a variety of equipment (e.g.,

graduated cylinders, beakers,

balances) and report measurements

to the correct number of significant

figures. Compare the accuracy of

each measuring device.

Apply the rules for determining

significant digits when performing

mathematical operations.

Determine the average atomic mass

of an element based on the percent

abundance of its naturally occurring

isotopes.

Convert between mass, moles,

volume and number of representative

particles using Avogadro's number,

molar mass and density using

dimensional analysis.

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274

Chemistry continued

C.PM: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.6: Intermolecular forces of attraction

x Types and strengths

x Implications for properties of substances

o Melting and boiling point

o Solubility

o Vapor pressure

CONTENT ELABORATION: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

C.PM.6: Intermolecular forces of attraction

In middle school, solids, liquids and gases were explored in relation to the spacing of the particles, motion of the particles and strength of attraction between the

particles that make up the substance. The intermolecular forces of attraction between particles that determine whether a substance is a solid, liquid or gas at room

temperature are addressed in greater detail in this course. Intermolecular attractions are generally weak when compared to intramolecular bonds, but span a wide

range of strengths.

The composition of a substance and the shape and polarity of a molecule are particularly important in determining the type and strength of bonding and

intermolecular interactions. Types of intermolecular attractions include London dispersion forces (present between all molecules), dipole-dipole forces (present

between polar molecules) and hydrogen bonding (a special case of dipole-dipole where hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom such as fluorine,

oxygen or nitrogen), each with its own characteristic relative strength.

The configuration of atoms in a molecule determines the strength of the forces (bonds or intermolecular forces) between the particles and therefore the physical

properties (e.g., melting point, boiling point, solubility, vapor pressure) of a material. For a given substance, the average kinetic energy (temperature) needed for a

change of state to occur depends upon the strength of the intermolecular forces between the particles. Therefore, the melting point and boiling point depend upon

the amount of energy that is needed to overcome the attractions between the particles. Substances that have strong intermolecular forces or are made up of three-

dimensional networks of ionic or covalent bonds, tend to be solids at room temperature and have high melting and boiling points. Nonpolar organic molecules are

held together by weak London dispersion forces. However, substances with longer chains provide more opportunities for these attractions and tend to have higher

melting and boiling points. Increased branching of organic molecules results in lower melting and boiling points due to interference with the intermolecular

attractions.

Substances will have a greater solubility when dissolving in a solvent with similar intermolecular forces. If the substances have different intermolecular forces, they

are more likely to interact with themselves than the other substance and remain separated from each other. Water is a polar molecule and it is often used as a

solvent since most ionic and polar covalent substances will dissolve in it. In order for an ionic substance to dissolve in water, the attractive forces between the ions

must be overcome by the dipole-dipole interactions with the water. Dissolving of a solute in water is an example of a process that is difficult to classify as a

chemical or physical change and it is not appropriate to have students classify it one way or another.

Evaporation occurs when the particles with enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces separate from the rest of the sample to become a gas. The

pressure of these particles is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressure increases with temperature. Particles with larger intermolecular forces have lower vapor

pressures at a given temperature since the particles require more energy to overcome the attractive forces between them. Molecular substances often evaporate

more due to the weak attractions between the particles and can often be detected by their odor. Ionic or network covalent substances have stronger forces and are

not as likely to volatilize. These substances often have little, if any, odor. Liquids boil when their vapor pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. In solid water,

there is a network of hydrogen bonds between the particles that gives it an open structure. This is why water expands as it freezes and why solid water has a lower

density than liquid water. This has important implications for life (e.g., ice floating on water acts as an insulator in bodies of water to keep the temperature of the

rest of the water above freezing).

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275

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.PM.6: Intermolecular forces of attraction

Types and strengths

Design an investigation to identify

which solvent would be best to

dissolve a particular solute.

Design a procedure to determine the

polarity of a substance.

Investigate why water doesn’t follow

predicted trends (e.g., surface

tension, density, vapor pressure,

boiling point) based on its

intermolecular interactions (e.g. drops

on a penny, capillary tube, mixing oil

and water, water on glass vs. wax

paper). Summarize your findings.

Apply the idea of intermolecular

forces to biological implications (e.g.,

hydrogen bonding between two DNA

strands, cell membrane formation of

lipids).

Construct a chromatography

technique to separate the

components of different dyes (e.g.,

hair color, food additives, skittles)

applying principles of inter- and intra-

molecular forces.

Illustrate the differences between

intermolecular forces.

Represent the cause of intermolecular

forces between molecules using

models.

Explain the effect that branching has

on London dispersion forces in

nonpolar organic molecules (e.g.,

long chains have greater forces and

branching decreases the forces).

Identify real-world implications.

Explain the importance of molecular-

level structure in the functioning of

designed materials (e.g., why

electrically conductive materials are

often made of metal, flexible but

durable materials are made up of long

chained molecules, pharmaceuticals

are designed to interact with specific

receptors).

Describe intermolecular forces for

molecular compounds.

Ɣ H-bond as attraction between

molecules when H is bonded to

O, N, or F.

Ɣ Dipole-dipole attractions

between polar molecules.

Ɣ London dispersion forces

(electrons of one molecule

attracted to nucleus of another

molecule) – i.e. liquefied inert

gases.

Ɣ Relative strengths

(H>dipole>London/van der

Waals).

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276

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Explain why intermolecular forces are

weaker than ionic, covalent or metallic

bonds.

Identify the intermolecular forces that

exist in a given compound.

Implications for properties of substances (melting and boiling point, solubility, vapor pressure)

Make a soap and evaluate its

effectiveness on hard water. Compare

the effectiveness of various soaps.

Evaluate the composition of shampoo

samples using properties (e.g.,

viscosity, pH) to determine their

effectiveness.

Evaluate the properties of sweeteners

(e.g., regular table sugar, high

fructose corn syrup, stevia,

aspartame, saccharin, sucralose,

honey, agave). Research these

products and potential impacts. A

variation for this could be evaluating

oils (e.g., canola, coconut, olive,

vegetable).

Design an investigation to determine

if a molecule is polar or nonpolar.

Devise an investigation to show that

the addition of a solute affects the

density of a liquid.

Explain how a graph of vapor

pressure vs. temperature can be used

to determine boiling point and

strength of intermolecular forces.

Demonstrate the effect the strength of

intermolecular forces has on various

properties (e.g., change in

evaporation temperature,

polarizability, viscosity).

Predict which compound will have the

highest/lowest vapor pressure and

melting/boiling point based on

intermolecular forces.

Sketch the solvation of a solute in an

appropriate solvent and explain how

the solute separates and interacts

with the solvent.

Differentiate between bond polarity

and molecular polarity.

Explain why greater solubility occurs

when dissolving a substance in a

solvent with similar intermolecular

forces ("like dissolves like").

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277

Chemistry continued

C.IM: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.1: Chemical reactions

x Types of reactions

x Kinetics

x Energy

x Equilibrium

x Acids/bases

CONTENT ELABORATION: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.1: Chemical reactions

In the Physical Science course, coefficients were used to balance simple equations. Other representations, including Lewis structures and three-dimensional

models, were also used and manipulated to demonstrate the conservation of matter in chemical reactions. In this course, more complex reactions will be studied,

classified and represented with balanced chemical equations and three-dimensional models.

Classifying reactions into types can be a helpful organizational tool for recognizing patterns of what may happen when two substances are mixed. Teachers should

be aware that the common reaction classifications that are often used in high school chemistry courses may lead to misconceptions because they are not based

on the actual chemistry, but on surface features that can be similar from one system to another (e.g., exchanging partners), even though the underlying chemistry

is not the same. However, these classifications may be useful in making predictions about what happens when two substances are mixed.

Some general types of chemical reactions are oxidation/reduction, synthesis, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement (including precipitation

reactions and some acid-base neutralizations) and combustion reactions. Some reactions can fit into more than one category. For example, a single replacement

reaction can also be classified as an oxidation/reduction reaction. Identification of reactions involving oxidation and reduction as well as indicating what substance

is being oxidized and what is being reduced are appropriate in this course. However, balancing complex oxidation/reduction reactions is reserved for more

advanced study.

Organic molecules release energy when undergoing combustion reactions and are used to meet the energy needs of society (e.g., oil, gasoline, natural gas) and

to provide the energy needs of biological organisms (e.g., cellular respiration). When a reaction between two ionic compounds in aqueous solution results in the

formation of a precipitate or molecular compound, the reaction often occurs because the new ionic or covalent bonds are stronger than the original ion-dipole

interactions of the ions in solution. Laboratory experiences (3-D or virtual) with different types of chemical reactions should be provided.

Reactions occur when reacting particles collide in an appropriate orientation and with sufficient energy. The rate of a chemical reaction is the change in the amount

of the reactants or products in a specific period of time. Increasing the probability or effectiveness of the collisions between the particles increases the rate of the

reaction. Therefore, changing the concentration of the reactants, changing the temperature or the pressure of gaseous reactants, or using a catalyst, can change

the reaction rate. Likewise, the collision theory can be applied to dissolving solids in a liquid solvent and can be used to explain why reactions are more likely to

occur between reactants in the aqueous or gaseous state than between solids. The rate at which a substance dissolves should not be confused with the amount of

solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent (solubility). Mathematical treatment of reaction rates is reserved for more advanced study. Computer

simulations can help visualize reactions from the perspective of the kinetic-molecular theory.

In middle school, the differences between potential and kinetic energy and the particle nature of thermal energy were introduced. For chemical systems, potential

energy is in the form of chemical energy and kinetic energy is in the form of thermal energy. The total amount of chemical energy and/or thermal energy in a

system is impossible to measure. However, the energy change of a system can be calculated from measurements (mass and change in temperature) from

calorimetry experiments in the laboratory. Conservation of energy is an important component of calorimetry equations. Thermal energy is the energy of a system

due to the movement of its particles. The thermal energy of an object depends upon the amount of matter present (mass), temperature and chemical composition.

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278

Some materials require little energy to change their temperature and other materials require a great deal to change their temperature by the same amount.

Specific heat is a measure of how much energy is needed to change the temperature of a specific mass of material a specific amount. Specific heat values can be

used to calculate the thermal energy change, the temperature (initial, final or change in) or mass of a material in calorimetry. Water has a particularly high specific

heat capacity, which is important in regulating Earth’s temperature.

As studied in middle school, chemical energy is the potential energy associated with chemical systems. Chemical reactions involve valence electrons forming

bonds to yield more stable products with lower energies. Energy is required to break interactions and bonds between the reactant atoms and energy is released

when an interaction or bond is formed between the atoms in the products. Molecules with weak bonds (e.g., ATP) are less stable and tend to react to produce

more stable products, releasing energy in the process. Generally, energy is transferred out of the system (exothermic) when the products have stronger bonds

than the reactants and is transferred into the system (endothermic) when the reactants have stronger bonds than the products. Predictions of the energy

requirements (endothermic or exothermic) of a reaction can be made given a table of bond energies. Graphic representations can be drawn and interpreted to

represent the energy changes during a reaction. The role of energy in determining the spontaneity of chemical reactions is dealt with conceptually in this course.

Entropy and its influence on the spontaneity of reactions are reserved for more advanced study.

All reactions are reversible to a degree and many reactions do not proceed completely toward products but appear to stop progressing before the reactants are all

used up. At this point, the amounts of the reactants and the products appear to be constant and the reaction can be said to have reached dynamic equilibrium.

Dynamic equilibrium means the rate of the reverse reaction is equal to the rate of the forward reaction so there is no apparent change in the reaction.

If a chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in the conditions of the system (e.g., increase or decrease in the temperature, pressure on gaseous

equilibrium systems, concentration of a reactant or product), then the equilibrium system will respond by shifting to a new equilibrium state, reducing the effect of

the change (Le Chatelier’s Principle). If products are removed as they are formed during a reaction, then the equilibrium position of the system is forced to shift to

favor the products. In this way, an otherwise unfavorable reaction can be made to occur. Mathematical treatment of equilibrium reactions is reserved for advanced

study. Computer simulations can help visualize the progression of a reaction to dynamic equilibrium and the continuation of both the forward and reverse reactions

after equilibrium has been attained.

Properties of acids and bases and the ranges of the pH scale were introduced in Physical Science. In this course, the structural features of molecules are explored

to further understand acids and bases. Acids often result when hydrogen is covalently bonded to an electronegative element and is easily dissociated from the rest

of the molecule to bind with water to form a hydronium ion (H3O+). The acidity of an aqueous solution can be expressed as pH, where pH can be calculated from

the concentration of the hydronium ion. Bases are likely to dissociate in water to form a hydroxide ion. Acids can react with bases to form a salt and water. Such

neutralization reactions can be studied quantitatively by performing titration experiments. Detailed instruction about the equilibrium of acids and bases and the

concept of Brønsted-Lowry and Lewis acids and bases is not the focus at this level.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

Back to Table of Contents

279

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.IM.1: Chemical reactions

Types of reactions

Evaluate oxidation-reduction

reactions occurring in real-world

settings (e.g., rusting, electroplating)

that cause engineering/manufacturing

challenges and propose a solution.

Generate a process for recycling a

metal including the uses and possible

limitations of the recycled metal.

Apply knowledge of reactions to

determine the appropriate fire

extinguisher for a given scenario.

Examine living organisms to identify

and explain biological chemical

reactions (e.g., metabolism,

respiration, photosynthesis) within the

organism.

Compare different reaction types.

Explain the energy changes in

photosynthesis and in the combustion

of sugar in terms of bond breaking

and bond formation.

Using activity series and solubility

rules construct an outcome for single

replacement and double replacement

reactions.

Draw a particle diagram representing

the interactions of particles in a

chemical reaction.

Classify a chemical reaction as

synthesis, decomposition, single-

replacement, double replacement or

organic combustion.

Identify which substance is oxidized

and which substance is reduced in an

oxidation/reduction reaction.

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280

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Kinetics

Critique the effects of a catalyst on

everyday chemical reactions (e.g.,

biological enzymes, catalytic

converters). Redesign a process

which is more cost effective and/or

environmentally friendly.

Design an experiment to determine

the effect of concentration, surface

area or temperature on reaction rate.

Apply scientific principles and

evidence to provide an explanation

about the effects of changing

concentration, temperature and

pressure on the rate of a chemical

reaction.

Through experimentation, generate

qualitative potential energy diagrams

for endothermic and exothermic

reactions with and without the

presence of a catalyst (e.g.,

decomposition of H

with KI and

without KI). Include reactants,

products and activated complex.

Illustrate collision theory using particle

diagrams showing that molecules

must collide in the proper orientation

and with sufficient energy to equal or

exceed the activation energy in order

to react.

Identify the ways the rate of a

chemical reaction can be affected

(e.g., concentrations of reactions,

surface area, changing temperature

or pressure of gaseous substances,

using a catalyst).

Energy

Design a better (e.g., less expensive,

more environmentally friendly) safe

hand warmer using ionic substances.

Design a method to determine the

identity of a metal by calculating the

heat transfer from the hot metal to

cold water.

Compare how the specific heat of

different substances impacts

temperature change.

Develop a model to illustrate that the

release or absorption of energy from

a chemical reaction system depends

upon the changes in total bond

energy.

Use household materials to show the

difference between endothermic and

exothermic reactions.

Calculate the thermal energy change

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initial or final temperature and mass

of a material using specific heat.

Given a table of bond energies,

determine whether a given reaction is

exothermic or endothermic.

Track the flow of energy and explain

why a reaction is an exothermic or

endothermic process.

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281

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Equilibrium

Propose a procedure to shift a

commercial equilibrium process to

maximize a desired product and

construct a risk assessment for its

implications on society (e.g., Haber

process).

In a laboratory setting, illustrate

equilibrium shift due to disturbances.

Indicate whether the forward or

reverse reaction is favored to reach

equilibrium based on different

disturbances (e.g., increase or

decrease in temperature, pressure on

gaseous equilibrium systems, change

in concentration of a reactant or

product).

Show that equilibrium is dynamic and

that the rates of the forward and

reverse reactions are equal.

Describe key features of equilibrium

(two opposing processes occur

simultaneously at the same rate).

Acids/bases

Conduct an experiment to determine

what type of roof materials would be

appropriate in areas with high acid

rain.

Evaluate and critique why lakes with

limestone or calcium carbonate

experience less adverse effects from

acid rain than lakes with granite beds.

Then invent a product or process to

minimize these effects.

Design an investigation to determine

the effective pH range of natural and

synthetic indicators.

Devise a method to evaluate the

Vitamin C content of commercial

products.

Design an investigation to determine

the most effective antacid (e.g.,

baking soda (NaHCO

) or magnesium

hydroxide (Mg (OH)

) per gram for

neutralizing stomach acid (HCl).

Evaluate neutralization reactions

quantitatively by performing titration

experiments.

Perform calculations relating pH to

hydronium ion concentration.

Identify acids based on the formation

of the hydronium ion in water.

Identify bases by their dissociation in

water to form the hydroxide ion.

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282

Chemistry continued

C.IM: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.2: Gas laws

x Pressure, volume and temperature

x Ideal gas law

CONTENT ELABORATION: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.2: Gas laws

The kinetic-molecular theory can be used to explain the properties of gases (pressure, temperature and volume) through the motion and interactions of its

particles. Problems can also be solved involving the changes in temperature, pressure, volume and amount of a gas. When two of these four are kept constant,

the relationship between the other two can be quantified, described and explained using the kinetic-molecular theory. Real-world phenomena (e.g., why tire

pressure increases in hot weather, why a hot air balloon rises) can be explained using this theory. When solving gas problems, the Kelvin temperature scale must

be used since only in this scale is the temperature directly proportional to the average kinetic energy. The Kelvin temperature is based on a scale that has its

minimum temperature at absolute zero, a temperature at which all motion theoretically stops. Since equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure

contain an equal number of particles (Avogadro’s law), problems can be solved for an unchanging gaseous system using the ideal gas law (PV = nRT) where R is

the ideal gas constant (e.g., represented in multiple formats, 8.31 joules/(mole·K). The focus in this course is solving problems using the gas laws and

understanding their applications, rather than memorizing the specific names and formulas. Deviations from ideal gaseous behavior are reserved for more

advanced study. Relationships between the volume, temperature and pressure can be explored in the laboratory or through computer simulations or virtual

experiments.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

Back to Table of Contents

283

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.IM.2: Gas laws

Pressure, volume and temperature

Design a device that measures tire

pressure under changing temperature

conditions.

Design a toy that is an application of a

gas law.

Using simulations and/or laboratory

experiences, determine the

relationships between pressure and

volume, pressure and temperature,

and temperature and volume.

Explain both the quantitative and

qualitative relationships between

pressure, volume and temperature.

Construct models representing the

relationship of pressure, volume and

temperature related to collisions and

energy of particles.

Apply gas laws to common scenarios

(e.g. hot air balloons, tire blowouts)

Use the kinetic molecular theory to

explain the motion of gas particles

and how they are affected by changes

in pressure, temperature and/or

volume.

Identify units of pressure, volume and

temperature.

Convert between different pressure

units.

Solve problems using appropriate gas

law equations.

Determine whether pressure,

temperature and volume are

increasing or decreasing in a given

situation.

Ideal gas law

Create a model airbag with baking

soda and vinegar in a plastic bag.

Use the ideal gas law to figure the

amount of the reactants necessary to

fill a given plastic bag. Test the

prediction and provide possible

explanations for any discrepancy

between the theoretical and actual

results.

Detect and measure the volume of a

gas produced during a chemical

reaction and relate to molar volume at

standard temperature and pressure.

Use an Ideal Gas Law Simulator to

represent and interpret the connection

between pressure, volume,

temperature and number of particles.

Apply the ideal gas law to solve for an

appropriate variable.

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284

Chemistry continued

C.IM: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.3: Stoichiometry

x Molar calculations

x Solutions

x Limiting reagents

CONTENT ELABORATION: INTERACTIONS OF MATTER

C.IM.3: Stoichiometry

A stoichiometric calculation involves the conversion from the amount of one substance in a chemical reaction to the amount of another substance. The coefficients

of the balanced equation indicate the ratios of the substances involved in the reaction in terms of both particles and moles.

Once the number of moles of a substance is known, amounts can be changed to mass, volume of a gas, volume of solutions and/or number of particles. Molarity is

a measure of the concentration of a solution that can be used in stoichiometric calculations. When performing a reaction in the lab, the experimental yield can be

compared to the theoretical yield to calculate percent yield. The concept of limiting reagents is treated conceptually. Mathematical applications can be utilized, but

it is important to address the symbolic representations as well. Molality and normality are concepts reserved for more advanced study.

EXPECTATIONS FOR LEARNING

The content in the standards needs to be taught in ways that incorporate the nature of science and engage students in scientific thought processes. Where

possible, real-world data and problem- and project-based experiences should be utilized. Ohio’s Cognitive Demands relate to current understanding and research

about the ways people learn and are important aspects to the overall understanding of science concepts. Care should be taken to provide students opportunities to

engage in all four types of thinking. Additionally, lessons need to be designed so that they incorporate the concepts described in the Nature of Science.

VISIONS INTO PRACTICE: CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

This section provides guidance for developing classroom tasks that go beyond traditional approaches to instruction. It is a springboard for generating innovative

ideas to address the cognitive demands. A variety of activities are presented so that teachers can select those that best meet the needs of their students. This is

not an all-inclusive checklist and is not intended to cover every aspect of the standards. These activities are suggestions and are not mandatory.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

Back to Table of Contents

285

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

C.IM.3: Stoichiometry

Molar Calculations

Evaluate the efficiency, cost and

environmental impacts of multiple

possible chemical processes to

determine which process would be

best to use. Sustainability and green

chemistry should be considered.

Calculate the reactants needed to

produce an exact amount of a product

(e.g., produce silver through the

reaction of silver nitrate and copper or

zinc and hydrochloric acid). Produce

the product in the laboratory.

Calculate the percent difference

between the theoretical amount and

the amount actually produced.

Provide possible explanations for the

discrepancy.

Using data collected from a multi-step

chemical reaction, calculate percent

yield.

Use mole ratios from a balanced

equation to calculate the quantity of

one substance in a reaction, given the

quantity of another substance in the

reaction (e.g., given moles, particles,

mass or volume and ending with

moles, particles, mass or volume of

the desired substance).

Interpret the coefficients of a

balanced equation in terms of moles

and particles.

Solutions

Plan and implement a process to test

concentration of pollutants in water

(e.g., lead, mercury).

Explain how the creation of a

standardized solution (a solution of

known molarity) allows you to

determine the concentration of an

unknown solution.

Create a solution and a dilution of a

known concentration.

Calculate the molarity of an aqueous

solution.

Distinguish between solute, solvent

and solution.

Determine the concentration of an

unknown solution through titration.

OHIO’S LEARNING STANDARDS | SCIENCE | ADOPTED 2018

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286

Designing

technological/engineering

solutions using science concepts

Demonstrating science knowledge

Interpreting and communicating

science concepts

Recalling accurate science

Limiting reagents

Evaluate an environmental problem

through the lens of limiting reagents

(e.g., algae growths impacted by

available phosphates and nitrates).

Investigate the role that limiting

reagents play in an industrial process

(e.g., pharmacology, cosmetics,

chemical industries). Evaluate

techniques to optimize production,

including how costs and waste

products are taken into consideration.

Plan and carry out an investigation to

demonstrate the conceptual principle

of limiting reactants.

Compare limiting to excess reagents

in a chemical reaction (e.g., copper

(II) sulfate and an iron nail).

Determine which reactant is limited

using particle diagrams.

Use BCA tables to calculate the

quantities of products and excess

reactants.