Energy Diversity and Development in Kenya

94 JFQ / issue 70, 3

quarter 2013 ndupress.ndu.edu

ince its independence in 1963,

Kenya has been important to U.S.

regional interests. Its significant

role with the United States has

increased as America has developed coun-

terterrorism policies, sought stability in East

Africa, and recognized Kenya’s role in the

region.

The 2007 election crises, its resolu-

tion, the drafting of a new constitution, and

the ongoing role of Kenya in combating

terrorism underscore its regional impor-

tance. The 2013 election, while contested in

the Kenyan legal system, did not result in

significant conflict. The United States con-

gratulated the Kenyan people on conducting

a peaceful election.

It is axiomatic that a

stable, economically developing Kenya will

in turn promote stability in the region.

Political or economic distress in Kenya not

only discourages foreign investment but

may also impact the stability of neighbor-

ing countries.

Energy diversity will help

promote political and economic stability.

This article reviews Kenya’s current energy

posture with a focus on rural Kenya, dis-

cusses the various sources of energy avail-

able to the nation, discusses Kenya’s current

national energy structure, and makes policy

recommendations intended to assist its

energy generation and distribution.

Like all countries, Kenya relies on

energy for development and growth. In 2004,

Kenya created a national energy policy and

has subsequently made laudable efforts to

Colonel Albert Kendagor is a 2012 graduate of

the Industrial College of the Armed Forces at the

National Defense University (NDU). He is the Deputy

Commandant of the Kenya Military Academy in

Nakuru, Kenya. Colonel Richard J. Prevost, Esq.,

USA (Ret.), is an Associate Professor and Faculty

Lead for the Energy Industry Seminar in the Dwight

D. Eisenhower School for National Security and

Resource Strategy at NDU.

FEATURES

Energy Diversity and Development in Kenya

Lake Turkana Wind Power Project has

agreed to construction of wind power

towers in northern Kenya

ENERGY DIVERSITY AND

DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

By ALBerT KiProP KenDAGor and riChArD J. PreVoST

e overall national development objectives of the government of Kenya are economic growth; increasing

productivity of all sectors; equitable distribution of national income; poverty alleviation through improved

access to basic needs; enhanced agricultural production; industrialization; accelerated employment creation;

and improved rural-urban balance. . . . e realization of these objectives is only feasible if quality energy

services are availed in a sustainable, cost eective, and aordable manner to all sectors of the economy.

ndupress.ndu.edu issue 70, 3

quarter 2013 / JFQ 95

address the development of energy sources

and transmission. Until recently, the available

forms of energy in Kenya have been limited

to renewable sources. While the country

has recently developed further prospects

for hydrocarbon energy by way of hydraulic

fracturing,

at this time it produces no oil of

its own and relies on imported oil from the

Middle East, the Maghreb region, and central

Africa. An agreement to develop a new pipe-

line—which could potentially aid both Kenya

and South Sudan—from South Sudan to

Mombasa was signed in January 2012.

Kenya’s Current Energy Posture

In larger towns, cities, and commer-

cial centers, energy from imported oil is a

significant source of power for domestic

and industrial activities. Electricity gen-

eration from oil is supplied to the national

grid. However, only about 6 percent of all

Kenyans have access to the national grid.

rural areas, oil might be used for electrical

generation; however, the availability of oil

and refined oil products in these areas is

much less than in developed ones. In these

areas, the population and energy demands

are less. Biomass, specifically wood, is by far

the most widely used renewable fuel. Cur-

rently, the wood-fuel deficit exceeds 5,000

metric tons and is expected to grow. This

excessive demand for wood fuel continues to

lead to deforestation, forest fragmentation,

and land degradation, and threatens water

catchments.

Moreover, the national demand

for energy is projected to greatly increase

by 2030. In response to this increase, the

government must devise creative means to

develop more energy sources and improve

energy efficiency.

The government has recognized the

differences between urban and rural energy

supply and demand, the current limitations

on the availability of infrastructure, and

the potential for renewable energy. It has

developed a national framework called Vision

2030, and it has recognized millennium devel-

opment goals to bring energy to rural areas.

To succeed, Kenya’s government and private

sector must cooperate to promote energy gen-

eration and disbursement programs.

2006 Energy Act

The 2006 Energy Act established

an energy regulatory commission with a

mandate to regulate the energy sector.

Under this act, the Ministry of Energy must:

■

develop and manage a comprehen-

sive national energy efficiency program

based on education, innovations, and incen-

tives, focusing on reducing energy demand

through sustainable-use education projects

and the promotion of efficient, cost-effective

appliances and technologies

■

promote cogeneration and sales to

consumers

■

establish a rural electrification

program, create a commission to assist with

this program, and envision a funding scheme

to help support electrification.

The Role of Energy in the Economy.

The most recent draft of Kenya’s national

energy policy recognizes the key role that

energy plays in the nation’s economic

development. For example, it notes that the

energy sector contributes about 20 percent of

the nation’s overall tax revenue; that Kenya

imports all of its crude petroleum require-

ments, which accounts for about 25 percent

of its national import bill; that Kenya’s one

refinery meets about 40 percent of local

demand; and that energy prices in a liberal-

ized market are a significant determinant of

the nation’s competitiveness.

The policy emphasizes renewable

sources of energy to meet the national vision

and millennium development targets. Policy

Paper No. 4 of 2004

and the Energy Act of

2006, respectively, are the Kenyan policy and

legal frameworks for energy development.

Through these documents, the government

expresses its commitment to promote elec-

tricity generation from renewable energy

sources. Further support for renewable

energy development can be seen in Kenya’s

efforts to obtain outside funding. Kenya

is one of six countries selected by Climate

Investment Funds for their targeted program

“Scaling Up Renewable Energy Program

[SREP] in Low Income Countries.”

Feed-in Tariff. Kenya has formulated

a feed-in tariff (FIT) policy to promote the

generation of electricity using renewable

energy resources and to improve the rating

of its renewable energy sector. By using FIT,

the government hopes to make Kenya an

attractive destination for substantial private

sector investment.

The tariff makes it man-

datory for companies transmitting energy to

purchase electricity from renewable energy

sources at a predetermined price. Renewable

energy producers then have a guaranteed

market, and, if the pricing mechanism is cor-

rectly gauged and equitably adjusted to reflect

changes in cost, these companies will receive

an attractive return on investment for the

electricity they produce.

Under the FIT system, investment

security and market stability are provided

for investors of electricity generation from

renewable energy sources. This is done while

encouraging private investors to operate

their powerplants prudently and efficiently

to maximize returns. According to Policy

Paper No. 4 on energy, the national energy

policy “is to ensure adequate, quality, cost

effective and affordable supply of energy to

meet development needs, while protecting

and conserving the environment.”

This

policy facilitates the exploitation of abundant

renewable energy sources available in the

country. The feed-in tariffs were introduced

in 2008 and revised in 2010 to accommodate

additional renewable energy.

Kenya and Oil. The country has

several sources of renewable energy that can

be exploited and supplement oil. However,

importation of foreign oil will be necessary

for the short and medium terms. The country

imports oil both for domestic use and for

subsequent export as a refined product. The

nation’s one refinery at the port of Mombasa

has two distillation units. Next to the refin-

ery, a pipeline was built that can transport

product through the middle of the country

to the Kenya-Uganda border. Rural Kenyans

and those on the outskirts of cities use kero-

sene and liquefied petroleum gas for lighting

and cooking.

Plans have been announced to extend

the aforementioned pipeline into Uganda and

to construct another pipeline from the port of

Lamu to South Sudan and Ethiopia.

These

pipelines, along with over-the-road transport,

are the major source of transport of refined

petroleum products. Inland depots have been

established in every major town along the

national highway. The proposed pipelines,

connected to depots, would allow products to

reach consumers faster and more efficiently

relative to road transportation. The second

port at Lamu will have several berths and

supporting infrastructures and could not

only improve the energy sector but also spur

regional economic growth.

Renewable Sources of Energy

Kenyan sources of renewable energy are

diverse and at varied stages of development.

Hydropower generation is by far the largest

source of renewable energy supporting com-

mercial and industrial manufacturing.

Hydropower currently generates 57 percent of

national electricity.

There are seven hydro-

electric generating plants set along two major

rivers, the Tana and Turkwel. The power

generated is transmitted to the national grid

for further distribution.

Geothermal energy is a renewable

energy source with great promise. In Kenya,

geothermal energy involves tapping geysers

and channeling steam through pipes to turn

turbines and mainly has been developed

along the Rift Valley.

Currently, geothermal

energy converted to electricity contributes

KENDAGOR and PREVOST

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approximately 15 percent of Kenya’s electric

energy to the national grid.

According to

the Ministry of Energy, geothermal gen-

eration has great potential for development:

“Olkaria currently hosts three geothermal

power plants. Once new geothermal power

plants at Olkaria and Menengai are commis-

sioned, notes [Permanent Secretary Patrick

M.] Nyoike, geothermal power capacity

will increase by 490 [megawatts]. Kenya is

one of the few African countries that [has]

successfully tapped geothermal energy.”

Geothermal expansion builds on the concepts

of Vision 2030 and is intended to promote the

government and the private-sector partner-

ship program.

For Vision 2030 to materialize, Kenya

needs more than 10,000 megawatts of electri-

cal (MWe) output, and of this, a minimum

of 5,000 MWe is expected to come from

geothermal sources. Kenya’s geothermal

potential is in excess of 7,000 MWe spread

over more than 14 locations. This opens new

investment opportunities from supply of

equipment to construction of powerplants;

the planned developments are enormous and

the Geothermal Development Company is

committed to facilitate and stimulate investor

entry

and will drill wells and absorb some

of the costs that usually would be incurred by

private companies.

Wind energy in Kenya relies on

windmills that are erected along the wind

path. This source has huge potential as the

country experiences strong winds through-

out the year. The average wind speed in

Kenya is 3 to 10 meters per second, and the

country has several sites conducive to wind

energy. The most recent national energy

policy envisions at least 1,000-MW wind-

generation capacity by 2016.

The Ministry

of Energy—jointly with private investors—

has carried out extensive feasibility studies

in the Northern Province and construction

is due to commence around Lake Turkana.

The Lake Turkana Wind Power Project aims

to provide 300 MW of reliable, low-cost

wind power to the Kenya national grid,

equivalent to approximately 20 percent of

the electricity generating capacity currently

available. The project is of significant strate-

gic benefit to Kenya and, at a cost of KSh75

billion ($893 million), will be the largest

single private investment in the country’s

history. The wind farm site in northeastern

Kenya covers 40,000 acres and is located

in Loyangalani District, Marsabit West

County, approximately 50 kilometers north

of South Horr Township. Data collected and

analyzed since 2007 indicate that the site has

some of the best wind resources in Africa,

with consistent wind speeds averaging 11

meters per second and from the same direc-

tion year round.

Solar power also offers potential as a

renewable energy source. Solar power is most

prevalent in the outskirts of large towns and

rural areas. It has huge potential considering

that much of the country enjoys sunlight

throughout the year. Unfortunately, this

source does not currently contribute any

electricity to the national grid. Instead, solar

energy is consumed at the generation site or in

close proximity to it. It is estimated that close

to 500,000 homesteads in Kenya use solar

power to heat water. The government is com-

mitted to making serious efforts to expand

this resource.

Private-sector firms and

individual entrepreneurs, to some extent sup-

ported by both governmental and nongovern-

mental organizations, are responsible for the

development of solar energy. In fact in 1995,

Richard Acker and Daniel Kammen reported

that 20,000 to 40,000 small photovoltaic

systems had been installed in Kenya over the

previous decade.

In more recent decades,

Kenya has registered additional increases in

the use of solar power. This effort is a continu-

ation of past policies.

The widespread introduction and adop-

tion of renewable energy technologies remain

high on virtually every national development

policy agenda; renewable energy systems can

assist national energy autonomy, decentralize

resource management, promote environ-

mental conservation, and serve as a means to

reduce global warming.

Biofuels are among the most promis-

ing alternatives to fossil fuels, and Kenya is

making significant efforts to develop them.

Many farmers are encouraged to invest in

nonedible plants that have high yields.

This

resource remains underdeveloped, and the

government has identified it in the Vision

2030 development plans.

The last common source of renew-

able energy is biomass. This source, which

involves the use of firewood and pulp, is by

far the oldest in Kenya and the most wide-

spread source of energy in the rural areas.

It is the major cause of deforestation, with

great adverse effects on the environment and

long-term economy. In fact, the country has

lost forest cover from 9 percent at indepen-

dence (1963) to a mere 3 percent today.

The

government faces great challenges in trying

to curb the use of biomass; it meets up to 70

percent of Kenya’s final energy demand and

provides for more than 90 percent of rural

household energy needs—with approxi-

mately one-third in the form of charcoal and

the rest from firewood. It is estimated that

80 percent of urban households’ wood-fuel

demand is met by charcoal.

The development of nuclear energy is

recognized as another source of power that

will be considered in the future.

Many

experts have long believed that nuclear

energy is the best cure for the seasonal vaga-

ries that tremendously affect the nation’s

hydropower generation.

Notwithstanding

the high initial costs, safety concerns, and

technical skills required to acquire nuclear

power, there remains a strong national will to

pursue this option. According to the Ministry

of Energy, the government is considering

building a nuclear powerplant.

Developing

local and national expertise in the nuclear

field will be a challenge as will addressing the

issue of spent nuclear fuel. These challenges

are made more acute given Kenya’s plan to be

a nuclear energy generating nation by 2030.

Analysis

Kenya has enormous energy oppor-

tunities and supply challenges as it faces

increased energy demand. In 2009, the

country separated the generation and distri-

bution of electricity. Since then, two national

companies have operated as separate entities.

Kenya Generating Company is the major

supplier of electricity to the Kenya Power

Lighting Company. There are, however, other

privately owned suppliers that produce and

supply power to the national grid. Kenya now

encourages the private sector to invest in this

area, which has been dominated by the gov-

ernment for perhaps too long.

The government must account for the

varying impacts of energy generation on

the environment, but impacts from energy

generation are difficult to measure, and it

remains to be seen whether there is political

will to measure the ecological damage caused

by human activities associated with energy

production and to measure the interference

with ecosystems. Kenya desires to encourage

investments in clean energy to augment the

current energy sources to meet increased

energy needs.

In addition to encouraging energy

development investment, the government has

tried to increase the efficiency of energy pro-

duction. Greater efficiency can be achieved

through acquisition and installation of

modern equipment. Significant energy loss

occurs from the transmission of energy from

generating plants to the national grid—the

old technology appears to be the major source

of seepage, and modernization may go a long

way toward alleviating this loss.

Once energy enters the national grid,

Kenya Power and Lighting distributes that

energy. The customers can be classified as

government, multilateral institutions, non-

governmental organizations, corporate insti-

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Energy Diversity and Development in Kenya

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tutions, and individuals. Jointly with the

private sector, the government has begun

to support the generation and efficient

distribution of energy to rural areas. Where

this has been done, there has been a positive

economic impact. Over the last 10 years,

government-, private-, and nongovernment-

supported Kenyan efforts have extended

electricity to more than 8 million homes.

The SREP initiative and private sector have

been instrumental in carrying out surveys

and financing installations of the renewable

sources of energy.

This expansion of elec-

tricity distribution and the ongoing effort

to develop pipelines may provide the most

immediate positive return on investment.

Also, Kenya has been successful in

monitoring and estimating energy waste.

Many sectors are improving their energy

efficiency to reduce consumption without

affecting their production. The sectors

leading this effort are motor, chemical, and

food-processing plants. According to the

Kenya Association of Manufactures, these

savings will reduce consumption by signifi-

cant margins, between 20 and 50 percent.

These efficiency efforts will help improve

Kenya’s competitiveness, especially if these

efforts can be made regarding cement, steel,

pulp, and paper production.

Other exogenous challenges and exter-

nalities arise as Kenya tries to develop and

implement its energy programs. Globaliza-

tion affects the energy sector in terms of the

demand, supply, and prices. Additionally,

rule-of-law and security issues can make it

difficult to do business in neighboring econo-

mies; the effects of regional and national

security challenges can cascade down to the

citizens, businesses, and local communities.

Overall, Kenya has been relatively stable;

however, the recent violence in Mombasa—

and past violence associated with the transi-

tion of government—make one realize how

fragile a nation can become and how security

is a necessity.

Members of MEND, the Movement for

the Emancipation of the Niger Delta, moving

fast in heavily armed speedboats, evaded

security and launched an attack on Bonga, the

most prominent of all oil platforms, 70 miles

from the shore. Group members managed to

climb onto the platform, but they were repelled

before they could blow up the computer-

ized control room. It was a close call, and a

scary one. The Bonga attack sent shockwaves

throughout the market. In an email to journal-

ists, a spokesman for MEND warned, “The

location for today’s attack was deliberately

chosen to remove any notion that offshore oil

production is far from our reach.”

Likewise, global and regional impacts

because of attacks on Kenyan pipelines, its

power grid, or/and infrastructure would have

adverse effects. Electricity-generation compa-

nies that import and use oil as a steady source

of fuel would have to reduce or stop produc-

tion if that source of oil is interrupted. Loss of

the grid would produce electricity shortages,

disrupt production of manufacturers, and

cause price instability to the producers and

consumers that rely on the grid. Reduced elec-

tricity, even if controlled by scheduled brown-

outs, would have cascading effects. Higher

unit prices for electricity are not only directly

passed on to consumers in towns and rural

villages, but they are also indirectly passed on

to higher prices for consumer goods.

Rural Electrification

The rural electrification program

continues to encounter many constraints.

Generating companies often use old tech-

nologies for the production and generation

of power. The antiquated technology results

in waste and inefficiency of between 10 and

30 percent. The unit of energy produced

is not economical. Infrastructure support,

even when there is a strong desire to conduct

maintenance, is another difficult constraint.

Kenya does not have sufficiently developed

road networks in rural areas, and this

hampers private companies accessing their

equipment. Many investors are discouraged

by dilapidated or nonexistent roads.

There is a chicken-and-egg aspect to

rural electrification as it relates to the area’s

economic capability. The lower individual

incomes in rural areas result in relatively

lower purchasing power. Thus, fewer people

and small enterprises in these areas can afford

installation. Low purchasing power has the

corresponding effect of further depressing the

rural customer base for operators, and is one

of the limiting factors to what can be charged

for electricity. Lack of electrification impacts

how much the local population can produce

and reduces purchasing power. There is an

economy-of-scale issue in rural areas that

reduces operators’ margins and makes it dif-

ficult to spread out the risk of providing elec-

tricity. The operators see greater risk as there

is a lower per capita income and greater per

capita operating costs because there are fewer

consumers. Consequently, only a limited

number of operators are willing to invest in

these areas.

Legal and environmental challenges

may delay the smooth implementation of

the electrification program. In rural areas,

transmission lines must be installed either

underground or overhead. In either instance,

companies are obliged to acquire rights of

way in rural areas whereas in urban areas,

rights of way may have been previously estab-

lished. National regulations and protocols

must be complied with, but they may serve

to slow development or rural electrification.

Conservation areas, such as important his-

torical sites and aquatic and ecological areas,

must remain protected or at least weighed

against the value received from rural electri-

fication programs.

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Also, the hydroelectric generation

intensity of Kenyan energy creates some risk

for potential rural electrification. Erratic

patterns of seasons and variable climatic

conditions have put huge limitations on

hydroelectric capacity. One current debate is

whether Kenya’s economic planners should

anticipate, and to what extent, permanent

climate change.

Policy Recommendations

Public and private recognition of the

value of energy generation and distribution

in Kenya is becoming widespread. There is

huge potential for planned, stable develop-

ment, and, at the same time, there are numer-

ous challenges and negative externalities that

must be addressed. First, the government has

recognized that rural Kenya does not have all

the characteristics of a pure market, so gov-

ernment intervention and encouragement are

planned. The rural electrification program is

a laudable goal and should be pursued. The

program should be people-driven, meaning

that the local population must be educated

and involved in the formulation and deci-

sionmaking process. Such involvement will

not only promote ownership and sustain-

ability but also build capacity for skills and

technology transfer.

Second, we strongly recommend the

modernization of electric generation equip-

ment and transmission lines. For example,

in many hydroelectric plants, older genera-

tors are still being used. Only one-third of

the energy generated reaches the consumer.

Additional loss is due to pilferage, broken

and poorly maintained lines, and aging

transformers.

Third, the government should provide

greater focus on generating energy from the

nation’s many renewable sources of clean

energy. For example, in additional to feed-in

tariffs, the government could provide tax

incentives for private developers willing to

be part of the rural electrification programs.

The private sector may be leveraged through

other incentives. Tax policy could encour-

age the importation of solar panels, wind

turbines, and other key energy accessories.

Wind remains readily available, and the gov-

ernment ought to encourage entrepreneurs

to deploy windmills at appropriate locations,

such as around Mombasa, Chulu Hills, and

the Kapiti Plains. Encouragement could come

in the form of not only tax incentives but

also government-sponsored development of

infrastructure that allows greater distribution

of electricity generated from wind.

Fourth, individuals and local entities

should be encouraged to invest in smaller

domestic windmills for off-grid consumption

at the villages. Notwithstanding these efforts

at the rural level, the government should

consider investment in wind sources through

installation of massive windmills capable of

integration to the grid. The Lake Turkana

wind farm in northern Kenya is a good

example. We see the government, perhaps

with international backing, as taking the lead

in this effort, but public-private ventures may

also be lucrative if properly incentivized.

Fifth, the nation needs to address the

future role of biomass energy. This energy

use has been detrimental to Kenya’s limited

forests. Adverse impacts of biomass energy

on the environment remain a major concern,

and the government should take measures to

reduce, over time, the use of biomass as an

energy source. The government should revise

the environmental regulations through the

newly commissioned National Environment

Management Authority. In view of the forest

degradations, the government should con-

sider, in addition to regulations, incentives for

the use of natural gas and kerosene through

tax exemptions to make them affordable.

The government should ensure availability

of fuels that can be used in lieu of biomass.

Finally, the government should encourage

sensible reforestation where the climate can

support it.

Conclusion

Kenya is a key nation to building stabil-

ity and prosperity in East Africa. The United

States has an interest in a stable Kenya that

is involved in counterterrorism, continues

to develop democratic institutions, and sup-

ports its neighbors. Kenya has huge potential

for economic growth and development,

and its rural electrification programs are

important in achieving this potential. Joint

public-private partnership programs can help

provide rural electrification. As the govern-

ment leads through deregulation and tax

policy, it will help leverage the private sector.

Ever-increasing energy demands require

a continuation of the paradigm shift that

has begun, from acceptance of intermittent

energy supply to one that embraces advanced

technology, a variety of energy sources,

greater efficiency, and is friendlier to the

environment.

Kenya’s opportunities for becoming

more energy self-sufficient lie in energy

diversification. We see this diversification

as requiring the development of renewable

forms of energy and, potentially, the develop-

ment of nuclear power. The rural electrifi-

cation program should be people-driven,

meaning that the local population must be

educated and involved in the formulations

and decisionmaking process. Such involve-

ments would not only promote ownership

and sustainability but also build capacity

for skills and technology transfer. Negative

impacts of energy development on the local

environment can be significantly controlled

through economic empowerment and educa-

tion of the citizens. State infrastructure devel-

opment in rural areas must be prioritized in

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Workers at Olkaria

Geothermal Power

Plant, Kenya

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order to incentivize the private sector. But

first, the private sector and the government

must educate and respond to the needs of

the local citizenry. It can then put in place

vibrant, actionable plans to provide energy,

develop the local economy, and reverse defor-

estation and desertification. JFQ

NOTES

Ministry of Energy, Third Draft National

Energy Policy (Nairobi: Republic of Kenya, 2012).

Michelle D. Gavin, “Policy Options Paper—

Kenya,” Council on Foreign Relations, March

13, 2008. Gavin notes that the U.S. Embassy in

Nairobi is the largest, and that Kenya is a signifi-

cant counterterrorism partner, providing a point

of military and humanitarian access, while having

played a vital role in bringing stability to Sudan

and Somalia.

“On behalf of the President and the people of

the United States, we congratulate Uhuru Kenyatta

on his election as president of Kenya. We also

congratulate the people of Kenya on the peace-

ful conduct of the election and commend Raila

Odinga for accepting the Supreme Court’s deci-

sion. We urge all Kenyans to peacefully accept the

results of the election.” Statement by the Press Sec-

retary on the Presidential Election in Kenya, The

White House, March 30, 2013, available at <www.

whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/30/state-

ment-press-secretary-presidential-election-kenya>.

Vice President Joseph Biden, speaking to

university students in Nairobi, drew a more direct

parallel to foreign investment when he stated:

“Foreign investment depends upon stability, trans-

parency, the rule of law, and the crackdown on

corruption.” See “Remarks by Vice President Joe

Biden to University Students in Nairobi, Kenya,”

June 9, 2010, available at <www.whitehouse.gov/

the-press-office/remarks-vice-president-joe-biden-

university-students-nairobi-kenya>.

The continued success of the East African

Community, and the viability of further political

and economic integration, will depend on the

development of a stronger regional infrastruc-

ture. The postelection crisis demonstrated the

vulnerability of inland countries to instability in

Kenya, which even in stable times is a bottleneck

for regional shipping. See Kenya (Oxford: Oxford

Analytica, Ltd., 2011).

Allan Odhiambo and George Omondi,

“Kenya’s Investment Profile Rises with Turkana

Oil Find,” Business Daily Africa, June 1, 2012.

Nicholas Bariyo, “South Sudan, Kenya Sign

Deal to Build Pipeline,” Wall Street Journal Online,

January 25, 2012.

Souleymane Diaby, Kenya’s Draft National

Biofuel Policy (Nairobi: U.S. Department of Agri-

culture, March 30, 2011).

United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), Kenya: Atlas of Our Changing Environ-

ment (Nairobi: UNEP, 2009).

Republic of Kenya, The Energy Act, 2006

(Nairobi: Republic of Kenya, 2006); Energy Regu-

latory Commission, available at <www.erc.go.ke/

erc/>.

“Energy Profile Kenya,” Reegle, available at

<www.reegle.info/countries/kenya-energy-profile/

KE>.

Republic of Kenya, The Energy Act, 2006.

Ibid.

Ministry of Energy, Third Draft National

Energy Policy.

Ministry of Energy, Sessional Paper No. 4 on

Energy (Nairobi: Ministry of Energy, 2004).

“Scaling-up Renewable Energy Program

[SREP],” The Climate Investment Fund, available

at <www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/srep>;

SREP Investment Plan for Kenya (Nairobi: Repub-

lic of Kenya, 2011).

Ministry of Energy, Feed-in Tariffs Policy on

Wind, Biomass, Small-Hydro, Geothermal, Biogas

and Solar Resource Generated Electricity (Nairobi:

Ministry of Energy, 2010).

Ministry of Energy, Sessional Paper No. 4 on

Energy; SREP Investment Plan for Kenya.

Ministry of Energy, Feed-in Tariffs.

SREP Investment Plan for Kenya.

See, for example, Eric Watkins, “South

Sudan to Construct Refinery, Oil Pipeline to

Kenya,” Oil & Gas Journal (January 26, 2012).

“Lamu Port Agency,” available at <http://

lamuportagency.com/about%20lamu.html>.

“Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency

Partnership (REEEP),” available at <www.reeep.org/

index.php?id=9353&special=viewitem&cid=54>.

Ibid.; UNEP places the value at 64 percent.

See UNEP.

Isaiah Esipisu, “Kenya: Nation Becoming

Economic Heartbeat of Continent,” All Africa,

April 25, 2012.

“Geothermal Energy to Meet 30% of Kenya’s

Electricity Needs by 2030,” CleanTechnica, Sep-

tember 3, 2011.

SREP Investment Plan for Kenya; David

Gathanju, “Kenya Bets Big on Renewable Energy,”

Renewable Energy World.com, June 16, 2010.

“GDC Business Plan and Strategy,” Geo-

thermal Development Company, Ltd., available at

<www.gdc.co.ke/index.php?option=com_content

&view=article&id=161&Itemid=155>.

Ministry of Energy, Third Draft National

Energy Policy.

Ibid.; “Lake Turkana Wind Power,” Aldwych

International, Ltd., available at <http://ltwp.co.ke/

home>.

Ibid.

Ministry of Energy, Third Draft National

Energy Policy.

Richard H. Acker and Daniel M. Kammen,

“The Quiet (Energy) Revolution: Analysing the

Dissemination of Photovoltaic Power Systems in

Kenya,” Energy Policy 24, no. 12 (1996).

Ibid.

John David Bwakali, “Biofuels Boom and

Bust,” Inter Press Service News Agency, October

24, 2008.

Bernard O. Muok et al., “Policies and Regu-

lations Affecting Biofuel Development in Kenya,”

Policy Innovation Systems for Clean Energy Security

(December 1, 2008); Diaby.

UNEP.

“Energy Profile Kenya.”

Ministry of Energy, Sessional Paper No. 4 on

Energy.

Cathy Majtenyi, Kenya Eyes Nuclear Power

Development (Lanham, MD: Federal Information

& News Dispatch, Inc., 2011).

“Kenya: KENYA Will Need Sh250bn to

Set Up a 1000MW Nuclear Reactor: Mr. Patrick

Nyoike,” MENA Report, November 7, 2012.

The Third Draft of the National Energy

Policy gave limited attention to climate change.

The document noted that Kenya signed the Kyoto

Protocol but was not required to develop emis-

sion reduction targets. The impact of a changing

climate may have to be addressed in the future

as Kenya depends on hydropower for electricity,

yet hydropower is highly vulnerable to climate

fluctuations.

SREP Investment Plan for Kenya.

“Energy Profile Kenya.”

Ministry of Energy, Third Draft National

Energy Policy.

See, for example, Drew Hinshaw, “Shoot-

ing of Cleric Stokes Tensions in Kenya,” The Wall

Street Journal, September 7, 2012; and Karuti

Kanyinga and James D. Long, “The Political

Economy of Reforms in Kenya: The Post-2007

Election Violence and a New Constitution,”

African Studies Review 55, no. 1 (April 2012),

31–51.

Daniel Yergin, The Quest (New York:

Penguin Press, 2011).

KENDAGOR and PREVOST