1
Chemical and Mechanical Properties of Kaolin Hollow Blocks Using Bagasse
Ash as Cement Replacement Materials
Authors: Hamda Milkeso
1
and Abebe Dinku
2
1.
Hamda Milkeso, Hawassa University, MSc In COTM CEng
2.
Prof (Dr.-Ing.)Abebe Dinku Vice presedent for Institutional Development, Addis Ababa University
Abstract
Background: The construction industry is a major sector of the economy of the most nations. The
construction methodology is changing from the thatched roofing house at major rural dwellers to
the large apartment used in the major cities in Ethiopia. Most of the low graded Kaolin
materials
around Shashamane and Arsi Negele districts were used for selected backfill material
in building
structure and filler materials or sub base materials in rural road construction. Thus
, the aim of
this study was to determine the mechanical properties of hollow concrete blocks produced using
low graded Kaolin, Bagasse Ash and Sawdust for an alternative wall making materials
.
Methods: Kaolin materials collected from two sites were used to determine its detailed information
on chemical composition and mechanical properties. Using Dangote and Habesha Ordinary
Portland cement and Portland Pozzolanic cement Kaolin hollow concrete blocks were prepared
and tested for its mechanical properties in laboratory. Indeed, Kaolin and Bagasse ash blended
with both Portland cements were added with the percentage of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15 % and 20 % as
partial replacement of the binding materials. Sawdust in the mixes was used with the pe
rcentage
of 8%, 16% and 32%for partial replacement of sand.
Results: This study indicates that up to 10 % Bagasse Ash and Kaolin partial replacement of
cement and up to 8% sawdust partial replacement for sand had improved compressive strength of
kaolin hollow concrete blocks throughout its age of curing. The chemical composition test results
of kaolin minerals of the selected sites show a low graded clay mineral oxides of Al
2
O
3
(12.68 %<
16%) content.
Conclusions: the decrease in clay content and brightness in both kaolin deposits of selected sites
were reliable on the occurrence of high percentage of alkaline and alkaline metal oxides.
Furthermore, high percentage of this K
2
O, Na
2
O, Fe
2
O
3
and TiO
2
, point out that there is a needs
for further alteration of parent rocks.
Keywords: Bagasse Ash, Bulk Density, Compressive Strength, Hollow Blocks, Kaolin, Sawdust
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1. INTRODUCTION
Kaolin is a unique industrial mineral that remains chemically inert over a wide pH range and offers excellent
coverage when used as a pigment in coated films. It is widely used as filler in the plastics industries due to
its inert chemical nature and its unique size, shape and structure. Most of the alternative wall making
materials used in the tropical countries was making from stabilized earth blocks, which lose their fertile
clay soil. Hence, it is better to replace this fertile stabilized earth block with loosen non fertile low graded
kaolin clay blocks that can be found abundantly in most of the high land and low land area of Ethiopia
(Haile Michael, et.al, 1998).
Ethiopia is known in the world as the museum of Ethnography, Archeology and Anthropology; for it is
residence of path of civilization and the cradle of humankind. Therefore, the eminence of the country goes
far in calling the attention of the world intellectuals on various fields including Architects, Civil Engineers
and Geoscientists due to having historical building monument (Mines, M.O, 2011).
Hollow concrete blocks produced in the major local sites in Ethiopia is from different composite materials
like fine gravel of different size (00 and 01 mm), Cement, Sand, Red Ash, Pumice, River dune sand, Scoria
and water in predetermined proportions. The blocks used in the world have similar overall dimensions
whereas, some have two hollow cores and the other might be three. Block dimensions vary, but in general,
the length and depth are around 400mm and 190mm respectively. The blocks manufactured in plants using
the “dry cast” process using a mix of kaolin, sand, fine gravel, Portland cement, Bagasse Ash, sawdust and
a limited amount of water in predetermined proportions. The concrete mix was feeding into molds, using
pressure and vibration for compaction, after which the block exits the mould (Svetlana Brzev and P.Eng
2012).
The successful application of kaolin clay and agro waste in building materials would not only serve as a
cost-effective alternative to the current disposal method, but also offer a large potential market for its
utilization in alternate building materials. At present, Ethiopia had little experience in the utilization of
different construction materials. The conventional materials are produced from mortar, gypsum, clay,
limestone and others materials, excavated from the ground. On the other hand, the demand of these building
materials was not compatible with the supply. This had an impact on the rising of cost of cement and other
construction materials (Abebe Dinku and Asnake 2003).
It was believed that there are numerous sources of kaolin clay in Ethiopia and currently exploration
activities carried out throughout the country. There are so many resources not even partially utilize its
potential in order to contribute to the construction industry (Haile Michael and Mengistu 2003). Hence, the
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study of both physical and chemical properties of these kaolin clays is very crucial due to its accessibility
to different sites of hollow concrete block production in the districts.
This study basically focused on the usefulness of the kaolin clay material for the intended purpose by
complying three factors by its proportion to ingredient raw material, compaction pressure and amount of
water applied that satisfy the standard quality of the block
Objective
To examine the chemical properties of kaolin clay minerals in the three selected sites for hollow
block production
To test the compressive strength of the hollow blocks made from the kaolin clay
To examine the effect of using Partial Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and Kaolin in place of cement as a
binding agent.
To analyze effect of partial replacement of sand by sawdust in the making the kaolin hollow blocks.
2. Related Literature
2.1 Kombolcha Kaolin Deposits
As shown in Figure 1 Kombolcha kaolin deposit was developed on pegmatite and granite rocks. These
bodies mainly composed of feldspars, quartz, mica and clay minerals (Haile Michael, et.al, 1998).
V
Figure 1: Kombolecha Kaolin Outcrop (Haile Michael, et.al, 1998)
The Kombelcha kaolin bears a relatively lower alumina (33.24%), and higher total alkali and iron,
averaging 2.54% and 2.63%, respectively as shown in Table 1. It also shows high shrinkage and low
porosity values at lower temperatures mainly due to its higher alkali and iron contents. From firing
properties, the verification temperature has inferred to as 1150
o
C for the Kombelcha kaolin (Haile Michael,
et.al, 1998).
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Table 1: Chemicals Analysis of Kombolcha Kaolin (Haile Michael, Fanta and Tibebu .M, 1998).
Sample No
Si0
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO
MgO
Na
2
O
K
2
O
H
2
O
LOI
MnO
2
TiO
2
S-49
48.1
34.2
1.94
0.4
0.3
0.4
1.10
1.20
12.4
0.1
0.61
S-48
47.4
33.2
2.79
0.7
0.3
0.2
1.30
1.20
12.1
0.1
0.62
S-47
47.5
34.3
2.48
0.5
0.4
0.4
1.30
0.70
12.5
0.1
0.57
S-46
47.3
32.6
3.2
0.9
0.4
0.5
1.90
1.20
11.2
0.1
0.74
S-45
48.4
31.9
2.64
0.6
0.2
1.6
1.80
1.00
11.4
0.1
0.60
2.2 Belesa Kaolin Deposits
As indicated in Table 2 below the chemical composition of Belesa kaolin depicts very low level of total
alkali (Na
2
0 +K
2
0) <0.2%) and generally low level of iron « 1.0%) and titanium < 1.0%). This suggests that
the kaolin is of high purity with no harmful chemicals to restrict its application for various industries. Its
high alumina content and low level of total alkali and alkali metals (Fe
2
0
3
+ Ti0
2
) makes it applicable for
many industries such as fillers, ceramics, refractory’s, chemicals, fiberglass etc. The chemical,
mineralogical and physical properties of the clay are comparable to most of the commercial kaolin, which
are applicable for filler, ceramics, and refractory and fiberglass industries (Haile Michael, M., 2003):
Table 2: Chemical Composition of Belesa Kaolin (Haile Michael, M., (2003)
Sample
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO
MgO
Na
2
O
K
2
O
MnO
2
H
2
O
LOI
TiO
2
P
2
O
5
HDS-
01
68.98
20.40
0.34
<0.01
0.03
0.07
<0.01
0.01
0.51
7.76
0.22
0.02
HDS-
02
45.83
36.86
1.03
“
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.65
13.62
0.71
0.02
HDS-
03
45.38
37.00
0.25
“
<0.01
<0.01
0.14
0.01
0.66
14.74
0.50
0.04
HDS-
04
70.33
19.26
0.86
“
<0.01
<0.01
0.21
0.01
0.43
7.78
0.03
0.02
Gaps identified:
Most of the Kaolin materials used in different industries of Ethiopia have high clay contents and
the low graded clay content material has not been given yet an attention.
There is no clear method of improving the low graded kaolin materials to high quality to use in
different industries.
There is no practice of using the low graded kaolin materials as an alternative wall making
materials rather than for some selected filler materials in roads and building structures.
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2.2 Pozzolanic Materials
The pozzolanic reaction of any classification was given as in the (Eq. 2.2) followed.
Pozzolan + Calcium Hydroxide + water Calcium Silicate Hydrate (gel)
It results in the consumption of the calcium hydroxide produced by the hydration of the cement which
lowers its amount in the concrete. The C-S-H formed in this reaction is not very different from that formed
in the regular reaction, except the slightly lower ratio of C/S, which is the case for most of the pozzolans.
The normal C/S ratio believed to be around two (Meeravali1, K. V. (2014). Because of the diversity of
pozzolans their chemical composition also varies. As classifying pozzolans only depending on their
chemical composition would be difficult, the ASTM C 618 classifies pozzolans depending on performance
basis (Biruk H and Abebe D, 2013).The percentage sum of the major oxide composition of sugarcane,
Bagasse ash indicates value of 70%. Hence, the Bagasse ash, and the low graded kaolin materials used in
this study can be applied as a replacement for partial cementing materials due to its pozzolanic properties.
Gaps identified:
According to ASTM C 618, these low graded kaolin materials can be classified as Pozzolanic
materials if the sum of its major oxides composition greater than 70% and available alkalis at max
up to 1.5%. But the problem is that no clear method specified to minimize the alkalis content when
it is up to 7-8% to use these kaolin materials.
2.3 Light Weight Aggregates
Local coarse aggregates are obtained from normal weight crushed basaltic stone and lightweight volcanic
ash, which are a member of a family of igneous rock (scoria or pumice). Since, lightweight aggregates not
commonly used for structural purposes; it was not possible to get sufficient number of test results. The
reason for limited application of lightweight aggregates for structural concrete could be due to lack of
confidence in using the material for structural purposes (Abebe Dinku, W. G).
Gaps identified:
Lightweight aggregates will not be given attention due to no possible sufficient number of test
results to have confidence of using this material for structural purpose.
Kaolin materials were not classified as lightweight aggregates that can be used as an alternative
wall making materials.
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Descriptions of the Study Area
Sembero Rogicha Kebele Kaolin site is found in Arsi Negele district along the Dalele river basin 5 km from
main road to Goljota Kersa Munisa. The area covered by indigenous natural forest and manmade plantation
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forest by Arsi Forest and Wild Life Enterprise in Munesa branch. The second one is Hursa Kebele Kaolin
site is found in Shashamane district along the Shashamane to Kofale town main asphalt road. The area
covered by indigenous natural forest and manmade plantation forest by Arsi Forest and Wild Life Enterprise
Sole branch. The two selected sites in the district had a large potential of kaolin clay mineral resources.
3.2 Method of Data Collection
The Kaolin samples from two sites were selected by drilling core on the surface at the deposits. Drill core
samples of Sembero Rogicha (S-25) were typically brownish yellow in color whereas drill core samples of
Hursa- Simbo (S-30) were typically light grayish in color. Both Kaolin deposits contain several thousands
of tons of kaolin which is suitable for hollow concrete block and floor tile production. After mixing, the
different samples drilled from the core on the kaolin deposits 2kg of each samples from selected sites would
be taken to Geological Survey Institute of Ethiopia for the complete silicate analysis and other related
chemical composition tests.
3.3 Kaolin
The chemical composition test results of Kaolin material of the three selected sites were identified by using
complete silicate analysis at Geological Survey Institute of Ethiopia. Hence, the sample of kaolin weighs 2
kg taken from each site to the laboratory tests. Thus, form laboratory test results the sum of major oxides
composition of two sites, Sembero Rogicha and Hursa-Simbo Kaolin indicates the values greater than 70%
whereas Rafu Hargisa Kaolin indicates the values equal to 31% as shown in Table 5below. Therefore, the
Kaolin material from two sites having a major Oxides composition greater than 70% can be use as
pozzolanic material and the rest can be reject. Besides these, the cements used for these trial mixes selected
randomly based on the locally available suppliers. Indeed, both Dangote and Habesha PPC and OPC were
using for preparing the trial mixes. During the preparation of the trial mixes, the designed proportions adopt
in order to undertake the trial mixes.
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Table 5: Oxide composition of kaolin clays and Bagasse Ash as tested in Geological Survey center of
Ethiopia
Kaolin
Sample
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO
MgO
Na
2
O
K
2
O
MnO
TiO
2
P
2
O
5
H
2
O
LOI
Sembero-
Rogicha
70.46
11.89
3.64
0.1
1.02
2.68
4.52
0.08
<
0.01
<
0.01
1.16
3.96
Hursa-
Simbo
63.34
13.68
7.42
<
0.01
0.74
2.72
2.9
0.12
<
0.01
<
0.01
1.79
5.81
Rafu-
Hargisa
22.3
6.1
2.98
46.3
3.04
0.52
0.62
0.01
<
0.01
<
0.01
6.39
10.69
Wonji
BA
(Biruk.H
&
Abebe.D,
2013)
65.58
5.87
4.32
1.78
1.23
1.02
6.41
0.05
0.25
1.35
0.2
10.48
(SiO
2
+ Al
2
O
3
+
Fe
2
O
3
)
85.99 > 70
Sembero-
Rogicha
84.44 > 70
Hursa- Simbo
31.38< 70
Rafu-Hargisa
75.77 >70
Wonji Bagasse Ash
In order to standardize the results, three sets of samples were prepared with conceptual framework of the
specimen preparation. One is made of a standard concrete mix and the other of the kaolin -concrete
mixes. This is necessary to compare the testing results to standard qualifications. Each of the sample-
making process includes: Optimum mix ratio and the actual making of the specimens. The Kaolin clay
resources from Sembero Rogicha kebele had a fine texture with plasticity of wet surfaces and light
grayish white in color. The source of kaolin material is from alteration of sedimentation deposit of
feldspars along the river basin(Figure 4).
a)Light Grayish white color kaolin b) Plasticity of kaolin surfaces c)Powdered Kaolin samples
Figure 4: Kaolin resource from Sembero Rogicha
The physical texture of Hursa- Simbo Kaolin was shown in the Figure 5 below. The surface plasticity of
the kaolin materials indicates its function as filler materials in different construction industries.
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a) Plasticity of surface texture b) Powdered Kaolinblend with ingredients
Figure 5: Kaolin resources of Hursa- Simbo sites
3.2 Bagasse Ash
The Bagasse ash used for this research was taken from Wonji Sugar Factory located in Oromia Regional
State - North Eastern Ethiopia. The Bagasse ash in this factory collected at each 8-hour interval from the
furnace and dumped around the factory very close to the residence of the factory workers. Hence, due to its
fine texture the dust of this Bagasse Ash simply blows to the workers and has a health risk during
production. As shown in the Figure 6 Bagasse Ash used for partial cement replacement materials have fine
textures with quality grain size to blend with all types of Portland cement.
Figure 6: Bagasse Ash collected from Wonji Sugarcane factory
3.3 Sawdust
Sawdust is industrial waste material obtained from sawdust refuse dump from timber shade & saw mills,
in various shapes and sizes as shown in Figure 7 shown below. These main byproducts of sawmills, unless
reprocessed in to particleboard, are burned in a sawdust burner and are used to make heat as fuel for local
peoples. The most important aspect and main target of the experiment are proving that partial sawdust-
cement-kaolin, partial sawdust-cement-pumice and partial sawdust-cement-gravel mixtures can prove to be
more lightweight and cost efficient. Since sawdust is, a timber waste, which its cost would go down, as well
as weight cause of its extremely light unit weight.
Figure 7: Sawdust used for production Kaolin concrete hollow blocks
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3.4 Physical properties of the Composite materials used for Kaolin Hollow Concrete Block
production
The physical properties from testindicates that the particle grading and plasticity results of the kaolin
materials under investigation fall within the acceptable ranges.
Table 6: Physical Properties of Kaolin from selected Quarry sites
Sl.
No
Property
Test results of raw materials
LanganoSand
Sembero
Rogicha
Hursa Simbo
Sawdust(Kg/m
3
)
1.
Bulk Density
2258
1493
1613
645
2.
Specific gravity
2.56
2.41
2.46
2.16
3.
Particle shape
Spherical
Spherical
Spherical
Spherical
3.5 Experimental Setup
The experiment would have a completely randomized design. Cementing materials (cement, Bagasse, and
kaolin), aggregates (kaolin, gravel, sand and pumice), and time of curing (1, 2 and 4 weeks) are used as
fixed effect. Thus the experimental test result developed as in the Table 7 shown below.
Table 7: The experimental setup for the materials mix ratios with percentage of replacement
Experiment Numbers
Percentage of BA/ KC
Cement content %
Percentage of
Sawdust
Sand Content (%)
I, II and III
0
100
0
100
5
95
8
92
10
90
16
84
15
85
24
76
20
80
32
68
The sample code S-25 and S-30 were used to indicate the kaolin sources from selected sites(Table 8).
Table 8: Clay sample code, name and source of the clay samples
Clay sample Code
Name
Source of clay samples
S-25
Kaolin
Sembero Rogicha inArsiNegele
S-30
Kaolin
Hursa-Simbo in Shashamane
PU
Pumice
Hawassa
GR
Gravel
Hawassa
KC
Kaolin Clay
From both sites
The Hydraulic machine used on compression testing machine shown in Figure 8 has two metal plates of
dimension 25*45 cm were used to be placed both in top and bottom section of the kaolin hollow block. The
main function of the plates was to help equal distribution of the axial load applied to the block over the
gross area and particularly, on to the net area cross-section of the blocks. After all, while blocks failing to
resist the load automatically applied over it, the value at the frailer point recorded. Based on the reading
value the individual load bearing capacity of each block identified with respect to corresponding curing
ages to determine the quality of the block produced to resist the supper imposed axial loads and horizontal
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wind loads The theoretical area at which servo Hydraulic machine adjusted to conduct compression strength
test result was 80,000mm
2
with a rate of loading 1.0 kN/s and start load of 0.1kN.
Figure 8: 7 Days of KHB under Hydraulic Compression Testing Machine
3.6 Mix Design
Providing detailed technical and economic information on the production of Kaolin hollow blocks by
assessing the potential of local materials (types of cement and Kaolin) is the purpose of this investigation.
Thus, two types of cement from manufacturers, and a Kaolin samples from Hursa-Simbo and Sembero
Rogicha of two districts are select and prepared. To this effect the following test programs are follow. Each
specimen paired according on his or her predetermined dry times, which were range from seven (7),
fourteen (14), and twenty-eight (28) days as in Table 9, shown below. All mixes have the same proportions
of Class C mix or a 1:3:6 ratios of cement and aggregates used.
Table 9: Mix proportions of Dangote PPC/OPC –BA/KC of 18% by weight aggregates of Cement
Mix Code
Cement
(gm)
Sand
(gm)
Bagasse
Ash (gm)
Kaolin
(gm)
Sawdust
(gm)
W/B
Water
(lit)
S-25 BA0
3630
6200
0
16000
500
0.309
5.6
S-25 BA5
3448
6200
68.57
16000
500
0.329
5.6
S-25 BA10
3268
6200
137.14
16000
500
0.330
5.6
S-25 BA15
3086
6200
205.71
16000
500
0.331
5.6
S-25 BA20
2904
6200
274.28
16000
500
0.332
5.6
S-30 BA0
3630
6200
0
16000
500
0.309
5.6
S-30 BA5
3448
6200
68.57
16000
500
0.329
5.6
S-30 BA10
3268
6200
137.14
16000
500
0.330
5.6
S-30 BA15
3086
6200
205.71
16000
500
0.331
5.6
S-30 BA20
2904
6200
274.28
16000
500
0.332
5.6
Mix Code
Cement
(gm)
Sand
(gm)
Bagasse
Ash (gm)
Pumice
(gm)
Sawdust
(gm)
W/B
Water
(gm)
Pu BA0
3630
6200
0
16000
500
0.562
1.5
Pu BA5
3448
6200
68.57
16000
500
0.571
1.5
Pu BA10
3268
6200
137.14
16000
500
0.581
1.5
Pu BA15
3086
6200
205.71
16000
500
0.590
1.5
Pu BA20
2904
6200
274.28
16000
500
0.600
1.5
Mix Code
Cement
(gm)
Sand(gm)
Gravel
(gm)
Kaolin
Clay (gm)
Sawdust
(gm)
W/B
Water
(lit)
GR-S-25KC 0
3630
6200
16000
0
500
0.620
1.5
GR-S-25KC 5
3448
6200
16000
140.40
500
0.626
1.5
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GR-S-
25KC10
3268
6200
16000
284.62
500
0.634
1.5
GR-S-
25KC15
3086
6200
16000
426.96
500
0.641
1.5
GR-S-
25KC20
2904
6200
16000
569.14
500
0.648
1.5
GR-S-30KC 0
3630
6200
16000
0
500
0.620
1.5
GR-S-30KC 5
3448
6200
16000
140.40
500
0.626
1.5
GR-S-
30KC10
3268
6200
16000
284.62
500
0.634
1.5
GR-S-
30KC15
3086
6200
16000
426.96
500
0.641
1.5
GR-S-
30KC20
2904
6200
16000
569.14
500
0.648
1.5
Thus, the experiment would have a complete random design with five levels of cementing materials, three
cases and three curing periods. Each experiment would replicate to two times the total number of sample is
equal to 90(5 materials * 3 curing periods * 3 cases *2 replication). After mixes were laid and left to dry
for a certain number of days, it can be tested under a hydraulic press machine for compressive strength
tests. These tests assist to show the strength of compressive force that can be resisted by the mixes.
In the above experimental design, the linear statistical model of the following form best related to observed
data:
Y = +
1
X
1
+
2
X
2
+……………………………………………………………... [Eqn.2.3]
Where Y is dependent variable (linear shrinkage and compressive strength); is common intercept, X
1
and
X
2
are effects of fixed factors;
1
and
2
are slopes of fixed effects; is error terms. The R-software was used
for statistical analysis. The material and days of curing were use as fixed effect. The mean difference was
test using simple linear regression model.
4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
As it can be seen from the chemical composition of laboratory, test results of three samples from selected
sites, two of them meet the required kaolin mineral standard whereas, the sample taken from Rafu Hargisa
Kebele fails to meet this. Therefore, the experimental sets up done were only in the samples, which meet
the designed requirements. Besides, Bagasse Ash and kaolin by itself tested for its suitability as cement,
replacing material and sawdust as partial replacement of sand analyzed and discussed in details. In this
research the basic filler aggregates used by substituting both coarse aggregates and partial fine aggregate
material were kaolin and sawdust respectively.
4.1 Kaolin Material Chemical and Physical Properties
The test result of kaolin is greater than 70% which mean that the Kaolin clays materials had pozzolanic
properties. The loss on ignition (LOI) value for the kaolin clays from both sites found to be 3.96% and
5.81% respectively, indicates reduction in its value as per ASTM C-618 Specification that was 10%. These
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tell us the kaolin minerals from both sites have slighter change in mass by heating under specified condition.
Moreover, the Kaolin clays for both sites found were contains high alkali content of K
2
O, 4.52% and 2.90%
respectively, implying high potential for alkali-silica reaction when used in concrete as silica reach
aggregates.
As results show the physical properties of kaolin clay minerals selected from two sites indicates the density
of the mineral altered based on the percentage composition of oxides in kaolin minerals which will in turn
contribute to weight of the kaolin hollow concrete blocks. Thus, the higher percentage of Ferric oxides
minerals was contributed to the larger aggregates weight. Nevertheless, the kaolin minerals from both sites
were lightweight aggregating materials with a little higher density than pumice and scoria. The density of
the kaolin minerals used for the intended hollow block production indicates that the materials have low
densities as compared with the conventional hollow concrete block making materials. Thus the physical
properties of kaolin materials test results prescribed as in Table 6above is the best opportunity for this
investigation.
4.2 Gradation of fine aggregates
The test result obtained from sieve analysis indicates fines modulus of 3.82, which helps us to classify the
sand materials as course aggregates. This indicates the sand used for production of the hollow concrete
blocks is coarser grain size. As we can see in Figure9 the result indicates that the sand used for molding
the blocks had a good quality with relatively les
s silt content.
Figure 9: Grading Curve of fine aggregates used for production of KHB
4.3 Test Results and Discussions
In this section four points were analyzed on utilization of kaolin material for hollow concrete blocks
production. The basic points in these discussions were:
The effects of curing days on compressive strength of kaolin hollow blocks using different
percentages of pozzolanic minerals as partial cement replacement were the importance,
0
50
100
150
0 5 10
Cummulative
percentage passing
Sieve sizes
Langano Sand Gradation
Min.
Max.
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Percentage of sawdust required to be replaced sand in kaolin hollow blocks productions in order
to obtain higher mean compressive strength.
The percentage composition of Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC) or Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) of different cement types which had an effect on compressive strength of kaolin hollow
blocks was properly analyzed, and
The change in compressive strength over gross area and net area of the hollow blocks with respect
to percentage composition of cement contents would be briefly discuss.
Generally, the statistical data of the test result was properly analyzed and discussed for each tables tabulated
and graph drawn as in the figures shown.
As in the Table 10 shown below Kaolin hollow blocks were specimen prepared from Dangote PPC blended
with BA. This accomplished in order to investigate how the Bagasse ash acts in the cement type. In fact,
hollow block works with PPC does not arise any improvement on the compressive strength at any
replacement percentage. Rather the compressive strength of the hollow blocks with Bagasse ash and PPC
had shown a reduction with respect to pure cement concrete mix paste. Moreover, there was a change in
compression strength among each percentage replacement of Bagasse ash while we comparing one with
other individual blocks. This may be resulted from the reason that setting effect of the powder added to the
cement and level of activation of pozzolanic material used in the concrete mix.
Table 10: Compressive strength of Dangote PPC-BA with S-25 & S-30 kaolin
Compression strength over gross area with 18 % wt. of aggregates
S.No
Mix Code
7 days
14 days
28 days
1
S-25 BA 0
0.77
0.84
0.94
2
S-25 BA 5
0.65
0.94
1.05
3
S-25 BA 10
0.77
0.79
0.87
4
S-25 BA 15
0.87
0.84
0.93
5
S-25 BA 20
0.65
0.71
0.79
6
M-25
0.83
0.91
1.01
Compression strength over gross area with 18 % wt. of aggregates
S.No
Mix Code
7 days
14 days
28 days
1
S-30 BA 0
0.7
0.99
1.1
2
S-30 BA 5
0.68
0.68
0.76
3
S-30 BA 10
0.55
0.73
0.81
4
S-30 BA 15
0.75
1.05
1.16
5
S-30 BA 20
0.59
1.04
1.16
6
M-30
0.68
0.86
0.79
Figure 10: Effect of curing days on compression strength of PPC-BA HCB
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As in statistical data of test, result shown in Table 11the days of curing had an effect on compressive
strength for percentage of Bagasse ash blended with cement powders except for 15% of BA. Thus for all
percentage of adding Bagasse ash were altering on compressive strength of the hollow blocks with respect
to days of curing significantly beyond the stated strength with exclusion of 15% BA. i.e. the kaolin hollow
block even attains its maximum compressive strength with increased age of curing. As seen from the
statistical data analyses there was a significant difference between ages of curing (p<0.005).Hence, ages of
curing was also concluded to be one of the vital factors that were affecting the compressive strength of the
kaolin hollow blocks has no effect forall cement replacement.
Table 11: P-Values for KHB produced with 18 % wt. of aggregates over net area of S-25 kaolin
Treatment
R
2
P-value
S-25 BA 0
0.98
0.056
S-25 BA 5
0.98
0.056
S-25 BA 10
0.98
0.056
S-25 BA 15
0.23
.0.423
S-25 BA 20
0.97
0.068
M-25
0.97
0.068
Average compressive during 7days, 14 days and 28 days were 0.66, 0.89 and 0.96 respectively. Thus the
compressive strength over net area during 28 days in Figure 4.31 were 0.96 in average indicates the kaolin
hollow block did not comply with the minimum compressive strength of class “C” were 1.8 MPa used in
accordance to ESC D3.301.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Compressive
strength(MPa)
Age(days)
S-25 BA 0
S-25 BA 5
S-25 BA 10
S-25 BA 15
S-25 BA 20
M-25
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 10 20 30
Compressive Strength
(MPa)
Age(days)
S-30 BA 0
S-30 BA 5
S-30 BA 10
S-30 BA 15
S-30 BA 20
M-30
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Figure 11: Effect of curing days on compression strength of PPC-BA hollow blocks produced over
gross area
As in statistical data of test, result shown in Table 12 the days of curing had an effect on compressive
strength for percentage of bagasse ash blended with cement powders except for 10% of BA. Thus for all
percentage of adding bagasse ash were alters on compressive strength of the hollow blocks with respect to
days of curing significantly beyond the stated strength with exclusion of 10% BA i.e. the kaolin hollow
block even attain its maximum compressive strength with increased age of curing. As it can seen from the
statistical data analyses there was a significant difference between ages of curing (p<0.005).Hence, ages of
curing was also concluded to be one of the vital factors that were affecting the compressive strength of the
kaolin hollow blocks has no effect for all cement replacement.
Table 12: P-Values for hollow blocks produced with 18 % wt. of aggregates over gross area
Treatment
R
2
P-value
S-30 BA 0
0.97
0.068
S-30 BA 5
0.97
0.068
S-30 BA 10
0.68
0.260
S-30 BA 15
0.97
0.068
S-30 BA 20
0.97
0.068
M-30
0.97
0.068
4.4 Test Results and Discussions on Experiment-IV
Sawdust can use as alternative substitute for fine aggregate in concrete production. Sawdust should been
washed and cleaned before use as concrete constituent because of large amount of bark, which can affect
setting, and hydration of cement.
As in the Table 14 prescribed below Kaolin hollow block specimens prepared by using sawdust of 8%, 16%
and 32% as partial replacement of sand and its effect on mean compressive strength be analyzed. Thus, the
mean compressive strength of the hollow blocks varies with the percentage of sawdust used as partial
replacement of sand. From the test results, mean Compressive, strength of 0.62MPa obtained during 28
th
days of curing with 32% replacement of sawdust with the sand and Dangote Portland Pozzolanic Cement
content of 8.3% using pumice material over gross cross sectional indicated in Table 15. However, at this
percentage of sawdust replacement by sand the mean compressive strength did not satisfy the minimum
requirement of class “C”.
As it can be seen from, test results in Table 16 shown below analyzed with effect of 16 % replacement of
sand by sawdust using 15% Dangote Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC) content. Thus, the maximum mean
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compressive strength attained during 28
th
day of curing by using gravel and S-25 kaolin materials were
1.10MPa and 0.72MPa respectively. Hence, with these values the hollow blocks made of using kaolin
materials both as partial replacement and filler material as aggregates did not comply with mean
compressive strength class “C” which was 2.0 MPa.
No. of research have been carried out on sawdust and agricultural waste to provide solution of getting low
cost masonry blocks. According to Adebakin I. H, the percentage replacement of sand should not be 10 %
to achieve better results in production of sand create blocks.
The third point was the effect of 8% sawdust replacement by sand using 18 % Dangote Portland Pozzolanic
Cement (PPC) contents. As it can be seen from the test results, even the maximum mean compressive
strength of 2.29 MPa and 0.96 MPa obtained using gravel and both kaolin materials respectively at 28
th
days of curing over gross cross sectional area. Therefore, at these percentages of sawdust as partial
replacement of sand and kaolin as partial replacement of cement the mean compressive strength complies
with that of hollow concrete block strength of class “C” which was 2.0 MPa.
According to LV. Savie (2010), the flexural strength increased from 1.43 N/ mm
2
at 7 days to 2.24 N/mm
2
at 28 days for control slab (i.e. about 57% increment). However, the strength of the 25% replacement by
sawdust showed increased in flexural strength from 1.15N/mm2 at 7 days to 1.67 N/mm2 at 28days (45%
increments).
Table 16: Compressive strength on various proportions of Cement: Sand: Saw dust.
S.No
Mix Code Exp.1
Cement
content %
Sawdust % to
replace sand
Mean Compressive strength
(MPa)
7 days
14 days
28 days
1
S-25BA with % mix
18
8
0.74
0.82
0.92
2
S-30BA with% mix
18
8
0.66
0.89
0.96
3
Pu BA with % mix
18
8
0.52
0.67
0.83
4
Gr -S25 KC with % mix
18
8
2.04
2.06
2.29
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
1. Mineralogical and chemical composition analysis of the studied kaolin shows the progressive
weathering of Pegmatite and granites of the parent rocks were the main sources of kaolinite of the
studied areas.
2. The observation of this study, along with those of Haile Michael and Fanta (1998), leads to the
conclusion that the decrease in clay content and brightness in both kaolin deposits of Sembero Rogicha
and Hursa area was dependable on the occurrence of high percentage of alkaline and alkaline metal
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oxides. Having this K
2
O, Na
2
O, Fe
2
O
3
and TiO
2
, indicates the needs for further alteration of parent
rocks.
3. The kaolin hollow concrete blocks of sizes 400 x 200 x 200 mm made with the concrete grade 1:3:6
proportion gives the average compressive strength of 0.96MPa or 9.6 kg/cm
2
considering the gross area
and 1.81 MPa or 18.1 kg/cm
2
considering net area were obtained by using S-25 kaolin clay materials.
Whereas the average compressive strength obtained by using S-30 kaolin material should be analogous
to that of S-25 that was 0.96 MPa or 9.6 kg/cm
2
. Considering the gross cross sectional area, compressive
strength of 1.96 MPa or 19.6 kg/cm
2
would obtain. Whereas the hollow concrete blocks of size 400 x
200 x 200 mm made with the concrete grade 1:3:6 proportions gives the average compressive strength
of 2.29MPa and 4.46MPa for blended S-25 KC with gravel material could be obtained which best can
comply with standard set for class “C” of ESC D3.301. Hence, the kaolin material used for hollow
block production with the maximum cement content of 18% and sawdust contents of 8% to 16% should
be use to cope with the required compressive strength standards.
4. The kaolin hollow block has a significance level of up to 15% were determined when blending PPC
cement both Dangote and Habesha with pozollanic materials like kaolin and bagasse ash used as partial
replacement for cement with percentage of 0% ,5% and 10% for 18% cement content. As seen from
statistical data there was no almost significance level for both S-25 and S-30 kaolin material during
15% cement content used for hollow block production except for 5% to 10% over net area Compressive
strength of the blocks with respect of curing dates. I.e. there were no more strength could be obtained
with ages of curing it might get the maximum compressive strength value during 7
th
days of curing.
5. On other hand as the percentage of cement content increased from 8.3%, 15% and 18% there were a
significance level of kaolin hollow blocks with all percentage of blended powder amount except for 5%
to 10% by using both bagasse Ash and kaolin as pre-determined.
6. Addition of sawdust on the kaolin hollow block production was an optimum percentage with high
natural bonds whenever it lies between 8% up to 10%, be identified.
7. Bagasse ash and Kaolin minerals were used as a partial cement replacement material as if the chemical
composition of the mineral prior analyzed
8. The analysis made on identification of the waste materials like Bagasse ash and sawdust in the
application for kaolin hollow block production as an alternative wall making materials were the best
opportunity for the clients, contractors and consultants and any other interested users as best
opportunity which comply the desired strength.
9. The provision of this kaolin minerals from both selected sites for application to the ceramic industry to
involve in the booming construction technology were the point, which require more emphasis.
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5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Final recommendations of the study are given below.
1. Compressive strength of the hollow block is the major factor to be taking into account for the
construction purpose. It values varies with the addition of the Bagasse Ash, sawdust and kaolin with
pre-determined mix design ratios. As the present study emphasizes even if kaolin clay minerals can
found abundantly the first steps to be done was testing for chemical composition of the minerals were
the basic point to practice.
2. As in construction industry the need of conventional raw materials for concretes like coarse aggregates
and fine aggregates are enhancing from day to day construction activities. It is the basic opportunity
for the consultants, contractors and local hollow concrete production small micro enterprise to
accomplish this kaolin clay mineral and agro waste material as input ingredients to enhance the
compression strength of the hollow blocks to comply with the standards for it.
3. The provision of lightweight wall making material in the construction industry with credible strength
develops a confidence on optimizing the dead load effect on the frame of the structure to undermine
the designing cost. To comply with this, it is better to use percentage of pozzollanic material as partial
cementing material up to 10%, which can best have hydrated through ages of curing.
4. Sawdust is one of the waste materials of sawmill in timber production. In order to use these raw
materials as aggregates for partial replacement of sand the optimum percentage to make this filler
material as reinforcement should be up to 8%with pre-determined empirical cement content and
addition of admixture needed to activate the hydration activities more.
5. The kaolin hollow blocks at lower cement content can developed a very low compressive strength,
which need high amount of water for workability. It is the additional work required for analyzing the
optimum empirical cement content determined to adopt cost efficient kaolin hollow blocks
production by using these low clay content minerals.
6. REFERENCES
1. Haile Michael, M., (2003): Report on Evaluation of Belesa Kaolin Geological Survey of Ethiopia,
Unpub.
2. Mines, M. O. (2011). Opportunities for Kaolin Resource Development in Ethiopia. Addis
Ababa.
2. BMTPC. (N.D.). “Techno Economic Feasibility Report on Concrete Hollow & Solid Block”.
Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council Ministry Of Housing & Urban
Poverty Alleviation Government Of India New Delhi.
3. Asmamaw Tadege, November, (2008). Compressed Cement Stabilized Soil Block, AAU.
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4. Abebe Dinku and Asnake (2003), (2nd.). Assessment of Hollow and Solid light weight
Concrete block in and around Addis Ababa. (EACE Bulletin Vol.5, No.1).
5. T.N.Boob, D. (2014). Performance of Saw-Dust in Low Cost Sandcrete Blocks. American
Journal of Engineering Research (AJER).
6. Haile Michael, M., (2003): Report on Evaluation of Belesa Kaolin Geological
Survey of Ethiopia, Unpub.
7. Abebe Dinku,(2007), School of Civil Engineering. A text book of Building Construction,
Addis Ababa University.
8. Haile Michael, Fantaw and Tibebu Mengestu(1998). Comparison of Bombowha and
Kombolcha Kaolin of Ethiopia. Journal of Applied ClayScience 13, pp149-164.
9. Afuwape F.K., 1983. Design and testing of a sawdust compactor. B.Sc. Thesis, Depart.
Agric. Eng., Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
10. John M. Harkin, C. (1969). Uses for Sawdust, Shavings, and Waste Chips. U.S.
Departmentof Agriculture • Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory. Madison,
Wis.FPL-208.
11. Manak Bhavan, G. B. (2005). Construction of Hollow and Solid Concrete Block
Masonry Code of Practice.
12. R. Srinivasan, and K. Sathiya, (2010). “Experimental Study on Bagasse Ash in
Concrete,” International Journal of Service Learning in Engineering, vol. 5, No.2.
13. Meeravali1, K. V. (2014). Partial Replacement Of Cement In Concrete With Sugar Cane
Bagasse Ash-Behaviour In Hcl Solution. IJARSE, Vol. No.3 (Issue No.7).
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