04_civitci.indd

KARAHAN /  e E ects of a Communication and Con ict Resolution Skill Training Program... • 513

Lonelness and Lfe Satsfacton n

Adolescents wth Dvorced and Non-

Dvorced Parents

Nazmiye ÇİVİTCİ*, Asım ÇİVİTCİ**, N. Ceren FİYAKALI***

Abstract

In this study, loneliness and global life satisfaction levels among high school students with

divorced and non-divorced parents were examined.  e study was conducted on a total of

836 high school students, 383 of whom comprised children with divorced parents and 453

comprised children with non-divorced parents in Denizli, Turkey.  e data were obtained

using the Satisfaction with Life Scale-SWLS, UCLA Loneliness Scale and a Personal In-

formation Form. In the analysis of the data, hierarchical regression analyses, MANOVA,

and one-way ANOVA were performed.  e  ndings of the study showed that loneliness

has higher negative e ects on life satisfaction among adolescents with divorced parents.

Adolescents with divorced parents are more susceptible to loneliness and global life sat-

isfaction than are adolescents with non-divorced parents. A signi cant di erence was

found in loneliness and global life satisfaction levels among adolescents with divorced

parents with respect to only number of siblings. Neither loneliness nor global life satisfac-

tion levels signi cantly di ered with respect to gender, grade, residential parent, contact

frequency with the non-residential parent, and the age at the time of divorce.

Key Words

Dvorce, Lonelness, Lfe Satsfacton, Adolescents.

* Correspondence: Assst. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale Unversty, Faculty of Educaton, Department of Counselng

and Gudance, Denzl / Turkey

E-mal: ncvtc@pau.edu.tr, acvtc@pau.edu.tr

** Assst. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale Unversty, Faculty of Educaton, Department of Counselng and Gudance,

Denzl / Turkey

*** Mustafa Kaynak Anatolan Hgh School, Denzl /Turkey.

Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri / Educational Sciences:  eory & Practice

9 (2) • Spring 2009 • 513-525

514 • EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

One of the experiences that can be considered as critical regarding

mental health among children and adolescents is parental divorce. As

a result of divorce, one of the parents departs from home, typically the

father who provides emotional support, protection, assistance, guid-

ance, and supervision to children.  us, divorce is seen as a signi cant

life experience which creates di culty in psychological development

and adjustment (Amato, 1994). A meta-analytical shows that children

with divorced parents experience more problems in such variables as

academic achievement, psychological adjustment, social adjustment and

self-concept compared to children of continuously intact two-parent

families (Amoto, & Keith, 1991).

Life satisfaction is one of the psychological variables that may be nega-

tively a ected by parental divorce. Life satisfaction forms the cogni-

tive component of the concept of subjective well-being, which is also

used as synonymous with happiness in the  eld of positive psychology.

Accordingly, subjective well-being has an emotional dimension, which

constitutes positive and negative feelings, and a cognitive dimension

which is also known as life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is cognitive

judgments and evaluations that an individual makes about his or her life

(Diener, & Suh, 1997). Numerous studies on adolescents have shown

that the level of positive parental attitudes (Çivitci, in press; Suldo &

Huebner, 2006), parental attachment (Nickerson & Nagle, 2004), fam-

ily’s socioeconomic status (Huebner, Valois, Paxton, & Drane, 2005;

Seligson, Huebner, & Valois, 2003), and positive relationships with par-

ents (Chang, Chang, Stewart, & Au, 2003; Gilman & Huebner, 2006)

increase as life satisfaction increases. Limited number of existing stud-

ies conducted on life satisfaction among children with divorced and

non-divorced parents show that global life satisfaction (Pardeck et al.,

1991; Shek, 2007; Zullig, Valois, Huebner, & Drane, 2005) and global

well-being (Demo, & Acock, 1996) levels among children from sepa-

rated families are lower than those from continuously intact two-parent

families. Parental divorce often causes stressful events that threaten the

psychological wellbeing of children.  ese events include one parent

leaving the home, exposure to continuing interparental con ict and dis-

cord, parental distress, remarried parents, moving to a new home even in

another city, changing school, a decline in economic resources, and etc.

(Amato, 2000; Sandler, Tein, Mehta, Wolchik, & Ayers, 2000). It can

be stated that marital dissolution has a detrimental impact on children

ÇİVİTCİ, ÇİVİTCİ, FİYAKALI / Loneliness and Life Satisfaction in Adolescents with Divorced... • 515

with regard to both psychological development and life satisfaction due

to new challenging experiences brought onto children’s lives.

One of the emotional states that may occur as a consequence of parental

divorce among children is loneliness. Loneliness is de ned as the dis-

turbing experience which emerges when insu ciencies in quality and

quantity are perceived in an individual’s social relationships. In other

words, loneliness is the subjective discrepancy between the level that is

attained and the level that one aspires to attain in social relationships

(Peplau, & Perlman, 1982). Loneliness may be considered as de cien-

cies in the systems of interpersonal interactions (e.g., family; Cristina,

Minzi, & Sacchi, 2004). In a study conducted by Brage and Meredith

(1993) on adolescents, it was found that family e ectiveness and com-

munication between mothers and adolescents are negatively related to

loneliness. Because divorce leads to many changes in the family struc-

ture and relationship patterns between family members, it can be ex-

pected that it decreases the e ectiveness of family relationships. Some

studies conducted earlier show that children with divorced parents feel

less closeness to their fathers (Guttmann, & Rosenberg, 2003), per-

ceive less support from the father, experience more con icts with their

siblings and perceive poorer family cohesion (Amato, 1987) than do

children with non-divorced parents. As these studies indicate, divorce

causes changes in the family system and quality of parent-children re-

lationships and increases the risk of straining emotional ties between

parents and children (Guttmann, & Rosenberg, 2003). In this situation,

children with divorced parents may experience increasing feelings of

rejection due to the emotional distance between parents and themselves

(Johnson, Joseph, LaVoie, & Mahoney, 2001), which may result in feel-

ing lonely.

Although comparative studies have been conducted to examine such

variables as anxiety (Öztürk, 2006), anger (Fiyakalı, 2008), self esteem

(Kuyucu, 2007; Öztürk, 2006), and resilience (Özcan, 2005) in children

and adolescents with divorced and non-divorced parents in Turkey, no

study has been encountered which focuses on loneliness or life satisfac-

tion. Considering the studies which have shown the detrimental impact

of parental divorce on children, it is predicted in this study that divorce

may be a risk factor with regard to life satisfaction and loneliness lev-

els among high school adolescents. Moreover, since one of the impor-

tant predictors of life satisfaction in adolescents is loneliness (Chipuer,

516 • EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

Bramston, & Pretty, 2003; Neto, 1993), whether parental divorce plays

a moderator role in the relationship between loneliness and life satisfac-

tion is one of the focus areas of this research.

As mentioned before, parental divorce is a di cult experience and has

many consequences in children’s psychological development. However,

the e ects of divorce are not the same on every child and may di er ac-

cording to personal and familial characteristics. For example, in a study

conducted on 4

and 5

grade students (Aral, & Başar, 1998), it was

observed that the state anxiety levels among children with divorced par-

ents changed according to age of the child’s separation from the mother

and the contact frequency with the other parent. In another study con-

ducted on 4

-8

grade students with divorced parents (Öztürk, 2006);

students’ anxiety and self-esteem levels did not di er according to con-

tact frequency with parents, the residential parent, age, and gender. In

a study on high school students (Kuyucu, 2007), no di erence was ob-

served in the level of self-esteem among children of divorce with respect

to gender and age. Since there is no similar study, it was found worth

to examine the possible changes in loneliness and life satisfaction levels

among adolescents with divorced parents with respect to some personal

and familial characteristics.

Brie y, this study sought answers to the following questions:

1. Does parental divorce play a role in the relationship between loneli-

ness and life satisfaction among adolescents?

2. Do loneliness and life satisfaction levels among adolescents change

based on whether the parents are divorced or non-divorced?

3. Do loneliness and life satisfaction levels among adolescents with di-

vorced parents change according to gender, grade, number of siblings,

residential parent, contact frequency with non-residential parent and

the age at the time of divorce?

Method

Participants

 e study group was comprised of a total of 836 students, who attended

19 high schools of di erent types in Denizli, Turkey.  ree hundred

eighty-three of the students had divorced parents and 453 had intact

ÇİVİTCİ, ÇİVİTCİ, FİYAKALI / Loneliness and Life Satisfaction in Adolescents with Divorced... • 517

families.  e distribution of students who formed the study group is

presented in Table 1.

Measures

Life satisfaction levels of the students were determined by the Satis-

faction with Life Scale-SWLS developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen,

and Gri n (1985) and adapted to Turkish by Köker (1991).  e scale

re ects an individual’s subjective evaluation of his or her own life and

measures perceived global life satisfaction. Loneliness levels were meas-

ured by the UCLA-R Loneliness Scale developed by Russell, Peplau,

and Cutrona (1980).  e UCLA Loneliness Scale was adapted to Turk-

ish by Demir (1989).  e information regarding independent variables,

which were parental divorce/living together, gender, grade, number of

siblings, residential parent, contact frequency with non-residential par-

ent, and the age at the time of divorce were obtained using a personal

information form.

Procedure

O cial permission was obtained to collect the data primarily from the

Ministry of National Education and local authorities. With the help of

school administrators, schools’ counselors, and classroom teachers, high

school students with divorced parents and intact two-parent families at

similar grades and gender were determined. With the school adminis-

trators, the students with divorced and non-divorced parents were gath-

ered on previously determined dates and the data collection instruments

were administered with the help of school counselors.

In order to test the moderator e ect of parental divorce/non-divorce

in the relationship between loneliness and life satisfaction, hierarchi-

cal regression analysis was employed as suggested by Baron and Kenny

(1986). In the study, in order to test di erences between the levels of

loneliness and life satisfaction among students with divorced and non-

divorced parents based on the independent variables, multivariate analy-

sis of variance (MANOVA) was used. In order to test whether there was

a signi cant di erence in loneliness and life satisfaction levels among

children of divorced parents with respect to independent variables, one

way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used.

518 • EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

Results

In order to test the moderator e ect of parental divorce/non-divorce in

the relationship between loneliness and life satisfaction, the steps were

used based on the hierarchical regression analysis as suggested by Baron

and Kenny (1986). In order to reduce problems associated with mul-

ticollinearity between the interaction term and the main e ects when

testing for moderator e ects, the two predictor variables (loneliness and

family structure) were standardized (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). To

perform this procedure, z-scores were calculated for loneliness and fam-

ily structure. According to Baron and Kenny’s (1986) regression model,

when the interaction between the predictor (loneliness) and the mod-

erator (family structure) predicts the predicted variable (life satisfaction)

at a signi cant level, the moderator (family structure) is e ective. In this

study, parental divorce/non-divorce (family structure) had an e ect on

the relationship between loneliness and life satisfaction (see Table 3).

In other words, the negative e ect of loneliness on life satisfaction is

higher on adolescents with divorced parents.

Di erences between the levels of loneliness and life satisfaction among

adolescents with divorced and non-divorced parents with respect to

gender, grade, and the number of siblings were tested using MANOVA

(see Table 4).  e results show that the main e ect of parental divorce/

non-divorce among adolescents on both loneliness [F (2, 819) = 8.56,

p<.01] and life satisfaction [F (2, 819) = 22.12, p<.001] are signi cant

(Wilks’ λ=.97, p<.001).  e means indicate that loneliness levels (x=

37.84) among adolescents with divorced parents is higher than those

with non-divorced parents (x= 35.92). Global life satisfaction levels

among adolescents of divorce is also lower (x= 22.45) than those with

intact families (x= 24.88).  e e ect of the interaction between paren-

tal divorce/non-divorce and gender (Wilks’ λ = 1.00; p > .05), grade

(Wilks’ λ =1.00; p>.05) and number of siblings (Wilks’ λ = .99; p > .05)

on adolescents’ loneliness and life satisfaction was not found signi cant.

According to ANOVA results (see Table 5), a signi cant di erence was

found in the levels of loneliness [F (4, 378) =4.56, p<.01] and global life

satisfaction [F (4, 378) =2.88, p<.05] among adolescents with divorced

parents only with respect to number of siblings.  ere were no signi -

cant di erences in either loneliness or global life satisfaction levels with

respect to gender, grade, residential parent, contact frequency with non-

residential parent and the age at the time of divorce.

ÇİVİTCİ, ÇİVİTCİ, FİYAKALI / Loneliness and Life Satisfaction in Adolescents with Divorced... • 519

According to Tukey HSD test, which tests between groups di erences,

loneliness levels of adolescents with four and more siblings (x= 44.80)

were found to be signi cantly higher than those with no siblings (x=

36.22), those with one sibling (x= 37.26), and those with two siblings

(x= 36.47). Global life satisfaction levels of the only-children (x= 23.45)

are higher than adolescents with three siblings (x= 20.55), and those

with four or more siblings (x= 20.35).

Discussion

One fundamental  nding of this study indicates that the negative role

of loneliness on life satisfaction among adolescents with divorced par-

ents is higher compared to those with continuously intact two-parent

families. Considering that loneliness is an important predictor of life

satisfaction among adolescents (Chipuer et al., 2003; Neto, 1993) and

that divorce has negative e ects on children’s psychological develop-

ment (Amoto, & Keith, 1991), a stronger relationship between loneli-

ness and life satisfaction among adolescents with divorced parents is

an expected result. In addition, adolescents with divorced parents were

found to have higher levels of loneliness and lower levels of life satisfac-

tion than do adolescents with intact two-parent families.  ese results

are consistent with previous studies which found that children with di-

vorced parents are more at a disadvantage regarding not only loneliness

(Garnefski, & Diekstra, 1997) and life satisfaction (Pardeck et al., 1991;

Zullig et al., 2005), but also numerous other psychological variables

such as anxiety, anger, self-esteem and adjustment (e.g., Fiyakalı, 2008;

Goodman, & Pickens, 2001; Guttmann, & Rosenberg, 2003; Mahon,

Yarcheski, & Yarcheski, 2003; Öztürk, 2006; Sardoğan, Karahan, Dicle,

& Menteş, 2007).

In this study, loneliness levels among adolescents with divorced parents

who had four or more siblings were found to be signi cantly di erent

from the loneliness levels among adolescents with no siblings and those

with one or two siblings. In the study conducted by Amato (1987), the

adolescents from divorce families made more negative evaluation of

their relationships with their siblings compared to those from intact

families. In the study conducted by Polit (1984), it was found that sib-

lings do not help each other in coping with the di culties of divorce

process; on the contrary, they exhibit competitive attitudes to attract

520 • EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

their mothers’ attention (cited in Amato, 1987). As the number of sib-

lings increases, it can be expected that parents’ attention decreases as it

is divided across siblings and competition for the attention from parents

increases.  erefore, the lack of support from siblings, who are thought

to be an important source of support in the process of divorce, can be

considered to cause experiences of higher levels of loneliness.

In this study, global life satisfaction levels of single-child were found

higher compared to adolescents with three siblings and those with four

and more siblings. A study conducted on adolescents (Çivitci, in press)

indicated that family satisfaction among students who are the single

child and those with one sibling is higher compared to those with four

and more siblings.  e single-child adolescents with divorced parents

may be receiving more intense attention and support from their parents

because they have no siblings.  is may be thought to be one reason why

single-child adolescents perceive their lives generally more positively.

No signi cant di erence was found in the loneliness and life satisfac-

tion levels of adolescents with divorced parents according to contact

frequency with the nonresidential parent. In studies consistent with

these  ndings, no relationship between the child’s adjustment (Trinder,

Kellet, & Swift, 2008), anxiety, self-esteem levels (Öztürk, 2006) and

contact frequency with the non-residential parent was found. On the

other hand, Healy, Malley, and Stewart (1990) found that children

who met with their fathers regularly and frequently (younger children

and males) had higher self-esteem levels and fewer behavioral prob-

lems. Considering some studies which show that the quality of parent-

children relationship is more important than the length of time spent

with non-residential parent (e.g., Stewart, 2003), it can be stated that

the quality of parent-children relationship may play a stronger role in

decreasing loneliness and increasing life satisfaction levels among ado-

lescents, rather than the frequency of contact with the non-residential

parent.

According to two of the  ndings of this study, which can be evaluated

together, loneliness and global life satisfaction levels among adolescents

with divorced parents do not show signi cant di erences with respect

to grade levels and the age at the time of divorce. Some of the studies

which showed that anxiety (Öztürk, 2006) and self-esteem (Kuyucu,

2007; Öztürk, 2006) did not di er according to age, and that trait anger

(Fiyakalı, 2008) did not di er according to grade level among children

ÇİVİTCİ, ÇİVİTCİ, FİYAKALI / Loneliness and Life Satisfaction in Adolescents with Divorced... • 521

and adolescents with divorced parents are consistent with the  ndings

of this study.  e strongest e ects after the divorce emerge in the  rst

two years following divorce and these e ects decrease in the following

years (Clarke-Stewart, & Brentano, 2006). It seems that preschool peri-

od is the most disadvantageous period with regard to short term e ects

of divorce in the  rst two years proceeding divorce. Adolescents experi-

ence the e ects of divorce less severely because they are less dependent

on their parents and more peer-oriented (Amato, 1994). A majority of

the participants who participated in this study (approximately 85%; see

Table 1) are in a period when the short term intense e ects of divorce

decrease and when they experience long term e ects of divorce because

a period of more than two years have passed after the divorce of their

parents.  is may be thought as a reason for di erences in loneliness

and global life satisfaction levels according to grade level and the age at

the time of divorce.

Neither loneliness nor global life satisfaction levels among adolescents

with divorced parents showed signi cant di erences according to res-

idential parent. Studies which indicated that anxiety (Aral, & Başar,

1998; Öztürk, 2006) and self-esteem (Öztürk, 2006) among children

and adolescents with divorced parents do not di er according to resi-

dential parent are consistent with the  ndings in this study. In a meta-

analytical of children of divorce (Amato, 1994), it was reported that

the psychological health of the residential parent and positive parental

attitudes and skills have an e ect on the child’s adjustment after divorce.

A study conducted by Peterson and Zill (1986) shows that the negative

e ects are lower if the child maintains a good relationship with parents.

 erefore, it can be stated that living with the mother or the father is

not e ective alone, but the psychological state and child rearing atti-

tudes of the residential parents equally play a role.

No signi cant di erence was found in the loneliness and global life

satisfaction levels among adolescents with divorced parents according

to gender.  e studies which found that anxiety (Öztürk, 2006), anger

(Fiyakalı, 2008), self-esteem (Kuyucu, 2007; Öztürk, 2006), and adjust-

ment to divorce (Kurdek, Blisk, & Siesky, 1981) among children and

adolescents with divorced parents do not di er according to gender

are partially consistent with the  ndings of this study. Boys generally

show more maladjustment and more sustained problems than girls in

response to divorce (Lowery & Setle, 1985). It has been reported that

522 • EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES: THEORY & PRACTICE

short-term e ects of divorce may di er according to gender, yet in the

long term, these di erences decrease and reach a certain balance in boys

and girls; however, this process takes a longer time among boys com-

pared to girls (Kurdek et al., 1981). Considering that almost all of the

participants in this study are in the period when they are experiencing

the long term e ects of divorce, it can be thought that boys and girls

may have reached a more equal level with respect to life satisfaction and

loneliness levels.

In light of this study which suggests that high school adolescents with

divorced parents may be at risk with regard to loneliness and life satis-

faction, some suggestions may be made towards practice. It is important

that school counselors inform the parents of adolescents who are sepa-

rated or divorced about the possible emotional states (e.g., loneliness)

children may experience after divorce. Particularly, a good parent-child

relationship after divorce may help children feel less lonely and perceive

their lives as less negative. Moreover, these students may be encouraged

to participate in individual or group counseling where they can share

their feelings and experiences.

ÇİVİTCİ, ÇİVİTCİ, FİYAKALI / Loneliness and Life Satisfaction in Adolescents with Divorced... • 523

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